New Frontiers

What did the brain change to satisfy hunger?

[:en]What did the brain change to satisfy hunger?[:]

NextQuestion Spotlight

Has the audacious dream of replicating the brain truly failed?

[:en]Has the audacious dream of replicating the brain truly failed?[:zh]复刻大脑这场狂想，真的失败了吗？[:]

NeuroAI: Can It Lead Neuroscience Out of Its Impasse?

[:en]NeuroAI: Can It Lead Neuroscience Out of Its Impasse?[:zh]NeuroAI，能带领神经科学走出困境吗？[:]

Can large models learn alien languages?

[:en]Can large models learn alien languages?[:zh]大模型能学会外星语言吗？[:]

Active Inference: A New Direction for “Data Alchemy”?

[:en]Active Inference: A New Direction for “Data Alchemy”?[:zh]主动推理，“数据炼金术”的新方向？[:]

Observations

Who Stole the Monkey’s “Elixir” on the Road of Evolution?

[:en]Who Stole the Monkey’s “Elixir” on the Road of Evolution?[:zh]进化路上，谁偷走了猴子的“仙丹”？[:]

Who Are the “Behind-the-Scenes” Controllers of AI-Simulated Societies?

[:en]Who Are the “Behind-the-Scenes” Controllers of AI-Simulated Societies?[:]

Top Ten Advances in Artificial Intelligence in 2024

[:en]Top Ten Advances in Artificial Intelligence in 2024[:]

Top Ten Advances in Neuropsychiatric Research in 2024

[:en]Top Ten Advances in Neuropsychiatric Research in 2024[:]

Top Ten Advances in Brain Science in 2024

[:en]Top Ten Advances in Brain Science in 2024[:]

Interviews With Scientists

<div style="line-height: 1.5;">
Foreword
On September 21-22, 2023, the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI), in collaboration with the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences and the Shanghai Mental Health Center, hosted a special symposium titled “Brain-Machine Interfaces and Philosophy: Interdisciplinary Dialogues.”
The event brought together over 60 experts and scholars from fields including clinical medicine, natural sciences, philosophy and ethics, the science and technology governance, and industrial planning. The discussions focused on core topics such as the role of brain-machine interfaces in national governance, ethical considerations in technology, human cognition, human-computer interaction, and legal challenges.
As one of the symposium’s conveners, Professor Ji Haiqing, a research fellow at the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences and Director of the Science and Technology Philosophy Research Office, was invited for an exclusive interview with us. From the perspective of technological ethics, Professor Ji offered a deep analysis of the social integration process of brain-machine interfaces and their potential impacts. He shared insights into the motivations behind organizing the symposium and provided unique perspectives on the ethical distinctions between brain-machine interfaces and traditional medical devices, the implications of these technologies for privacy, the expansion of human boundaries, and human enhancement.
The following is the interview with Ji Haiqing. We have condensed the text to make it easier to read.
Question: Could you introduce yourself to our audience?
Ji Haiqing: I am Ji Haiqing from the Institute of Philosophy at the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences. During my undergraduate studies, I majored in a science and engineering discipline—computer science. However, over time, I developed a deep interest in topics related to the humanities, society, and history.
In my twenties, I realized that the answers to the questions I had been pondering could not be found in the computer science books I was reading—such as those on data structures or programming languages. As a result, I made what seemed like an unusual decision: I transitioned from studying computer science to pursuing philosophy, hoping to freely explore the issues that intrigued me.
Since then, I have been engaged in philosophical research, particularly in the field of philosophy of technology. I am deeply satisfied with this career because it allows me to observe and reflect on societal and technological developments through thinking, writing, and discussions with colleagues. It’s an intellectually stimulating and fulfilling endeavor.
Question: Thank you for organizing this symposium on brain-machine interfaces and philosophy. What inspired you to host this event?
Ji Haiqing: The motivation for organizing this symposium stemmed from my interest in brain-machine interface (BMI) technology. BMI integrates cutting-edge advancements across various disciplines, including biology, neuroengineering, neuroscience, electronics, and artificial intelligence. It brings together the achievements of these advanced fields and combines them with the human brain—a complex and critical organ.
BMI represents the forefront of the current technological wave and serves as a crucial component worthy of deep investigation. My personal interest in BMI is closely tied to one of my research areas: the ethics of technology.
The ethics of technology explores how science and technology integrate into society. This integration is not merely a straightforward application of technology; it is a complex process involving a delicate balance of competing forces. I often use the analogy of a diver to illustrate this point: a skilled diver enters the water from a great height with barely a splash, but if a new technology is ethically immature, even a dive from a lower height can create significant backlash. The process of integrating technology into society is much the same.
The goal of philosophical and ethical research is to explore how technological products can &#8220;enter the water&#8221;—that is, integrate into society—at the optimal angle, minimizing their negative impacts, aligning them with human values, and facilitating their acceptance by society. My particular focus on BMI arises from its status as a frontier technology. I am eager to understand how it integrates into society.
Will society embrace BMI technology? Will it be fully accepted, or will it encounter resistance—perhaps due to conceptual biases or other factors? These are fascinating questions that led me to combine brain-machine interfaces with philosophy as a research theme. This symposium was an opportunity to bring together experts from various fields to explore these questions collaboratively.
Question: Compared to other medical devices, brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) raise more ethical controversies. In your opinion, what are the fundamental differences between BCIs and traditional medical devices?
Ji Haiqing: The uniqueness of BCIs lies in their direct interaction with the human brain, which is an extraordinarily mysterious, critical, and irreplaceable organ. Throughout the history of philosophy, there have been extensive discussions about the mind, the spirit, and thought. Although the term &#8220;heart&#8221; was historically used to describe these concepts, in reality, all advanced cognitive functions, emotions, and bodily regulation are carried out by the brain, not the heart.
Traditional medical devices may replace certain parts of the human body, such as prosthetic limbs or even artificial hearts, but the brain remains irreplaceable. The distinctive feature of BCIs is their direct engagement with this irreplaceable organ. To use a computing analogy, components like hard drives or memory can be replaced in a computer, but if the central processing unit (CPU) is damaged, the entire system becomes nonfunctional. Similarly, the brain plays an essential role in the human body, making the uniqueness of BCI technology particularly significant.
While BCIs hold immense potential for treating neurological and psychiatric disorders, their direct interaction with the human brain necessitates a dedicated focus on their ethical implications. In summary, BCIs are fundamentally different from traditional medical devices because they can access and interact directly with brain data, making their ethical considerations distinct and profound.
Question: In your view, how might BCI technology impact mental privacy?
Ji Haiqing: On the topic of privacy, I’d like to offer a broader perspective from the philosophy and history of technology. Scholars in the philosophy of technology often argue that our value judgments about certain concepts, such as privacy, may appear to be independent, but they are actually closely tied to the tools we use.
These tools not only help us achieve goals but also subtly shape our perceptions. For example, the invention of clocks changed our understanding of time. Before clocks, people perceived time through natural phenomena, such as the rising and setting of the sun or the shadow of a sundial. However, with the advent of clocks, time became segmented into measurable units like hours and minutes.
Similarly, the concept of privacy is deeply intertwined with the tools we use. For instance, the presence of a camera evokes a sense of privacy awareness. If I am willing to be seen by others, I face the camera willingly; if I am not, I avoid it. Privacy is not a concept that exists in a vacuum but is shaped by our attitudes toward and use of technological tools.
Thus, privacy does not imply complete concealment; rather, it depends on whom we wish to share information with and to what extent. This reflects the mutual interaction and co-construction of technology and our perceptions. The crux lies in how we view these technological tools and our attitudes toward privacy.
Question: How will brain-computer interface (BCI) technology affect the boundaries of what it means to be “human”?
Ji Haiqing: This question requires clarifying several concepts. In Chinese, the term &#8220;人&#8221; corresponds to two distinct terms in Western languages: human being and person. Human being refers to humanity in a biological sense, while person denotes an individual human. When discussing person, you and I are distinct individuals, but from the perspective of human beings, we belong to the same species without differentiation.
When it comes to BCIs and their impact on individual personality, there are many intriguing topics to explore. One of the key concepts we often discuss is personal identity. Generally, external changes, such as changing clothes, do not affect our personal identity—who we are. However, when we implant devices like deep brain stimulation (DBS) to regulate physiological states due to illness or other reasons, do we remain the same person? How society perceives the impact of these technologies on personality and identity becomes a critical question.
Interestingly, we have already seen some exceptional cases. For example, the Spanish artist Neil Harbisson was born colorblind. To compensate for this, he implanted a device that converts the color spectrum into sound waves, enabling him to &#8220;hear&#8221; colors. While he successfully gained this ability, it also introduced new challenges. A microphone-like antenna is now attached to his skull, and when crossing border checkpoints, officials noticed his passport photo did not include this device. He was eventually required to take a new photo, incorporating the device as part of his body.
This case illustrates how, as society gradually accepts individuals who merge with technology—sometimes referred to as &#8220;cyborgs&#8221;—the traditional biological boundaries of what constitutes a &#8220;human being&#8221; are shifting. This transformation not only expands the boundaries of humanity but also raises numerous ethical, political, anthropological, and philosophical questions.
Question: Do you think the “technologization of the body” will inevitably become a future trend for humanity?
Ji Haiqing: The answer to this question is both &#8220;yes&#8221; and &#8220;no.&#8221; If we say &#8220;no,&#8221; it’s because the question assumes this will become a new trend in the future. From my perspective, this is not a new trend but rather one that has existed throughout human history. Humanity has always sought to extend its capabilities and activities through the integration of technology. The only difference now is that we are facing a new technological product—BCIs.
From the perspective of the philosophy of technology, technology can be broadly defined as any man-made artifact, an extension of human capabilities. Based on this definition, the integration of humans and technology has always been an ongoing trend. Books such as *Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind* and works in technological anthropology discuss similar themes.
For example, Polynesians in the South Pacific built canoes from island trees to travel between islands, while farmers in temperate northern regions felled large trees to construct ships for long-distance navigation. Despite differences in tools and techniques, both examples illustrate humanity’s use of natural resources in combination with technology to achieve their goals.
Therefore, I believe the fusion of humans and technology is a continuously evolving trend, not merely a phenomenon of the future.
Question: In the discussions surrounding brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) and philosophy, are there any significant studies that have been undervalued?
Ji Haiqing: This question touches on many aspects. As BCI devices become more widely applied, numerous issues will gradually emerge. The expansion of their usage will reveal problems over time rather than exposing them all at once.
I believe there are many important topics worthy of attention. If you’re interested, I recommend exploring the work of internationally renowned posthumanist scholars. These academics, while conducting serious research, possess imaginations that rival those of science fiction writers. For instance, American posthumanist scholar Katherine Hayles and others in the field of posthumanism often use imaginative depictions of humanity&#8217;s future existence to explore the relationship between humans and technology. Such works can serve as a source of intellectual inspiration.
Question: What is the topic you are most focused on at the moment?
Ji Haiqing: In recent years, I have been particularly interested in the topic of human enhancement. Human enhancement refers to using technology not only to meet conventional needs, such as treating diseases, but also to further augment individual capabilities. This enhancement goes beyond external devices and integrates with our bodies to improve physiological functions.
Broadly speaking, ever since humanity invented airplanes, we can say that humans have learned to fly, though this differs significantly from how birds fly. Birds rely on their physiological structures to fly, while humans achieve flight through technological tools. The trend of human enhancement likely involves technological tools directly altering human physiological structures, granting us unprecedented abilities. This trend has become especially prominent with advancements in electronics, nanotechnology, and other fields in the 21st century.
I believe this trend of human enhancement prompts an essential question: How will it shape our self-perception and influence our future development?
Question: How can we address the potential social issues arising from human enhancement to ensure technology benefits all populations?
Ji Haiqing: From my perspective, this is not an especially grave issue. Human societies have always adapted to the introduction of new technologies, which often create disparities among groups to some extent.
Looking back at history, some early societies improved farming efficiency with iron tools or agricultural equipment, leading to better harvests, while others domesticated animals to aid in labor. Meanwhile, some regions lacked these conditions. Such inequality has been a historical norm. Over time, societies have employed various methods to mitigate the inequalities brought about by technological advancements.
In our field of research, this phenomenon is known as the issue of technological accessibility. There are, in fact, numerous ways to address the social problems caused by unequal access to technology. If such inequality disrupts social stability or exacerbates class divisions, governments can intervene through public financial measures. For example, governments could procure and provide certain technologies for free or offer subsidies to help those who cannot afford new technologies.
Thus, I don’t see this as an insurmountable problem. We already have well-established economic theories and policy tools to tackle these challenges and ensure that technology can more widely benefit all populations.
<div style/>

[:en]<div style="line-height: 1.5;">
Foreword

On September 21-22, 2023, the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI), in collaboration with the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences and the Shanghai Mental Health Center, hosted a special symposium titled “Brain-Machine Interfaces and Philosophy: Interdisciplinary Dialogues.”

The event brought together over 60 experts and scholars from fields including clinical medicine, natural sciences, philosophy and ethics, the science and technology governance, and industrial planning. The discussions focused on core topics such as the role of brain-machine interfaces in national governance, ethical considerations in technology, human cognition, human-computer interaction, and legal challenges.

As one of the symposium’s conveners, Professor Ji Haiqing, a research fellow at the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences and Director of the Science and Technology Philosophy Research Office, was invited for an exclusive interview with us. From the perspective of technological ethics, Professor Ji offered a deep analysis of the social integration process of brain-machine interfaces and their potential impacts. He shared insights into the motivations behind organizing the symposium and provided unique perspectives on the ethical distinctions between brain-machine interfaces and traditional medical devices, the implications of these technologies for privacy, the expansion of human boundaries, and human enhancement.

The following is the interview with Ji Haiqing. We have condensed the text to make it easier to read.

Question: Could you introduce yourself to our audience?

Ji Haiqing: I am Ji Haiqing from the Institute of Philosophy at the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences. During my undergraduate studies, I majored in a science and engineering discipline—computer science. However, over time, I developed a deep interest in topics related to the humanities, society, and history.

In my twenties, I realized that the answers to the questions I had been pondering could not be found in the computer science books I was reading—such as those on data structures or programming languages. As a result, I made what seemed like an unusual decision: I transitioned from studying computer science to pursuing philosophy, hoping to freely explore the issues that intrigued me.

Since then, I have been engaged in philosophical research, particularly in the field of philosophy of technology. I am deeply satisfied with this career because it allows me to observe and reflect on societal and technological developments through thinking, writing, and discussions with colleagues. It’s an intellectually stimulating and fulfilling endeavor.

Question: Thank you for organizing this symposium on brain-machine interfaces and philosophy. What inspired you to host this event?

Ji Haiqing: The motivation for organizing this symposium stemmed from my interest in brain-machine interface (BMI) technology. BMI integrates cutting-edge advancements across various disciplines, including biology, neuroengineering, neuroscience, electronics, and artificial intelligence. It brings together the achievements of these advanced fields and combines them with the human brain—a complex and critical organ.

BMI represents the forefront of the current technological wave and serves as a crucial component worthy of deep investigation. My personal interest in BMI is closely tied to one of my research areas: the ethics of technology.

The ethics of technology explores how science and technology integrate into society. This integration is not merely a straightforward application of technology; it is a complex process involving a delicate balance of competing forces. I often use the analogy of a diver to illustrate this point: a skilled diver enters the water from a great height with barely a splash, but if a new technology is ethically immature, even a dive from a lower height can create significant backlash. The process of integrating technology into society is much the same.

The goal of philosophical and ethical research is to explore how technological products can "enter the water"—that is, integrate into society—at the optimal angle, minimizing their negative impacts, aligning them with human values, and facilitating their acceptance by society. My particular focus on BMI arises from its status as a frontier technology. I am eager to understand how it integrates into society.

Will society embrace BMI technology? Will it be fully accepted, or will it encounter resistance—perhaps due to conceptual biases or other factors? These are fascinating questions that led me to combine brain-machine interfaces with philosophy as a research theme. This symposium was an opportunity to bring together experts from various fields to explore these questions collaboratively.

Question: Compared to other medical devices, brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) raise more ethical controversies. In your opinion, what are the fundamental differences between BCIs and traditional medical devices?

Ji Haiqing: The uniqueness of BCIs lies in their direct interaction with the human brain, which is an extraordinarily mysterious, critical, and irreplaceable organ. Throughout the history of philosophy, there have been extensive discussions about the mind, the spirit, and thought. Although the term "heart" was historically used to describe these concepts, in reality, all advanced cognitive functions, emotions, and bodily regulation are carried out by the brain, not the heart.

Traditional medical devices may replace certain parts of the human body, such as prosthetic limbs or even artificial hearts, but the brain remains irreplaceable. The distinctive feature of BCIs is their direct engagement with this irreplaceable organ. To use a computing analogy, components like hard drives or memory can be replaced in a computer, but if the central processing unit (CPU) is damaged, the entire system becomes nonfunctional. Similarly, the brain plays an essential role in the human body, making the uniqueness of BCI technology particularly significant.

While BCIs hold immense potential for treating neurological and psychiatric disorders, their direct interaction with the human brain necessitates a dedicated focus on their ethical implications. In summary, BCIs are fundamentally different from traditional medical devices because they can access and interact directly with brain data, making their ethical considerations distinct and profound.

Question: In your view, how might BCI technology impact mental privacy?

Ji Haiqing: On the topic of privacy, I’d like to offer a broader perspective from the philosophy and history of technology. Scholars in the philosophy of technology often argue that our value judgments about certain concepts, such as privacy, may appear to be independent, but they are actually closely tied to the tools we use.

These tools not only help us achieve goals but also subtly shape our perceptions. For example, the invention of clocks changed our understanding of time. Before clocks, people perceived time through natural phenomena, such as the rising and setting of the sun or the shadow of a sundial. However, with the advent of clocks, time became segmented into measurable units like hours and minutes.

Similarly, the concept of privacy is deeply intertwined with the tools we use. For instance, the presence of a camera evokes a sense of privacy awareness. If I am willing to be seen by others, I face the camera willingly; if I am not, I avoid it. Privacy is not a concept that exists in a vacuum but is shaped by our attitudes toward and use of technological tools.

Thus, privacy does not imply complete concealment; rather, it depends on whom we wish to share information with and to what extent. This reflects the mutual interaction and co-construction of technology and our perceptions. The crux lies in how we view these technological tools and our attitudes toward privacy.

Question: How will brain-computer interface (BCI) technology affect the boundaries of what it means to be “human”?

Ji Haiqing: This question requires clarifying several concepts. In Chinese, the term "人" corresponds to two distinct terms in Western languages: human being and person. Human being refers to humanity in a biological sense, while person denotes an individual human. When discussing person, you and I are distinct individuals, but from the perspective of human beings, we belong to the same species without differentiation.

When it comes to BCIs and their impact on individual personality, there are many intriguing topics to explore. One of the key concepts we often discuss is personal identity. Generally, external changes, such as changing clothes, do not affect our personal identity—who we are. However, when we implant devices like deep brain stimulation (DBS) to regulate physiological states due to illness or other reasons, do we remain the same person? How society perceives the impact of these technologies on personality and identity becomes a critical question.

Interestingly, we have already seen some exceptional cases. For example, the Spanish artist Neil Harbisson was born colorblind. To compensate for this, he implanted a device that converts the color spectrum into sound waves, enabling him to "hear" colors. While he successfully gained this ability, it also introduced new challenges. A microphone-like antenna is now attached to his skull, and when crossing border checkpoints, officials noticed his passport photo did not include this device. He was eventually required to take a new photo, incorporating the device as part of his body.

This case illustrates how, as society gradually accepts individuals who merge with technology—sometimes referred to as "cyborgs"—the traditional biological boundaries of what constitutes a "human being" are shifting. This transformation not only expands the boundaries of humanity but also raises numerous ethical, political, anthropological, and philosophical questions.

Question: Do you think the “technologization of the body” will inevitably become a future trend for humanity?

Ji Haiqing: The answer to this question is both "yes" and "no." If we say "no," it’s because the question assumes this will become a new trend in the future. From my perspective, this is not a new trend but rather one that has existed throughout human history. Humanity has always sought to extend its capabilities and activities through the integration of technology. The only difference now is that we are facing a new technological product—BCIs.

From the perspective of the philosophy of technology, technology can be broadly defined as any man-made artifact, an extension of human capabilities. Based on this definition, the integration of humans and technology has always been an ongoing trend. Books such as *Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind* and works in technological anthropology discuss similar themes.

For example, Polynesians in the South Pacific built canoes from island trees to travel between islands, while farmers in temperate northern regions felled large trees to construct ships for long-distance navigation. Despite differences in tools and techniques, both examples illustrate humanity’s use of natural resources in combination with technology to achieve their goals.

Therefore, I believe the fusion of humans and technology is a continuously evolving trend, not merely a phenomenon of the future.

Question: In the discussions surrounding brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) and philosophy, are there any significant studies that have been undervalued?

Ji Haiqing: This question touches on many aspects. As BCI devices become more widely applied, numerous issues will gradually emerge. The expansion of their usage will reveal problems over time rather than exposing them all at once.

I believe there are many important topics worthy of attention. If you’re interested, I recommend exploring the work of internationally renowned posthumanist scholars. These academics, while conducting serious research, possess imaginations that rival those of science fiction writers. For instance, American posthumanist scholar Katherine Hayles and others in the field of posthumanism often use imaginative depictions of humanity's future existence to explore the relationship between humans and technology. Such works can serve as a source of intellectual inspiration.

Question: What is the topic you are most focused on at the moment?

Ji Haiqing: In recent years, I have been particularly interested in the topic of human enhancement. Human enhancement refers to using technology not only to meet conventional needs, such as treating diseases, but also to further augment individual capabilities. This enhancement goes beyond external devices and integrates with our bodies to improve physiological functions.

Broadly speaking, ever since humanity invented airplanes, we can say that humans have learned to fly, though this differs significantly from how birds fly. Birds rely on their physiological structures to fly, while humans achieve flight through technological tools. The trend of human enhancement likely involves technological tools directly altering human physiological structures, granting us unprecedented abilities. This trend has become especially prominent with advancements in electronics, nanotechnology, and other fields in the 21st century.

I believe this trend of human enhancement prompts an essential question: How will it shape our self-perception and influence our future development?

Question: How can we address the potential social issues arising from human enhancement to ensure technology benefits all populations?

Ji Haiqing: From my perspective, this is not an especially grave issue. Human societies have always adapted to the introduction of new technologies, which often create disparities among groups to some extent.

Looking back at history, some early societies improved farming efficiency with iron tools or agricultural equipment, leading to better harvests, while others domesticated animals to aid in labor. Meanwhile, some regions lacked these conditions. Such inequality has been a historical norm. Over time, societies have employed various methods to mitigate the inequalities brought about by technological advancements.

In our field of research, this phenomenon is known as the issue of technological accessibility. There are, in fact, numerous ways to address the social problems caused by unequal access to technology. If such inequality disrupts social stability or exacerbates class divisions, governments can intervene through public financial measures. For example, governments could procure and provide certain technologies for free or offer subsidies to help those who cannot afford new technologies.

Thus, I don’t see this as an insurmountable problem. We already have well-established economic theories and policy tools to tackle these challenges and ensure that technology can more widely benefit all populations.
<div style/>[:]

Interview with Ji Haiqing: How Do We Define “Human” in the Context of Brain-Machine Interfaces?

[:en]Interview with Ji Haiqing: How Do We Define “Human” in the Context of Brain-Machine Interfaces?[:]

<div style="line-height: 1.5;">
Foreword
With the rapid advancement of technology, Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs), serving as a vital bridge between the human brain and external devices, have progressively emerged as a research hotspot in neuroscience and artificial intelligence. Researchers worldwide are actively exploring innovations in this cutting-edge field, striving to overcome technical bottlenecks and enable smarter, more efficient human-machine interactions.
In this exclusive interview, we are honored to have Professor Wang Shouyan, Director of the Center for Neural Modulation and Brain-Computer Interface Research at Fudan University. Professor Wang provides an in-depth analysis of the current state, development advantages, and future trends of BCI research in China. He also shares forward-looking insights and invaluable experiences from his work in the field.
The following is the interview with Professor Wang Shouyan. We have condensed the text to make it easier to read.
Question: What is the current state of Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) development in China?
Wang Shouyan: I am from the Institute of Brain-Inspired Intelligence Science and Technology at Fudan University and am responsible for establishing the Center for Neural Modulation and Brain-Computer Interface Research. First, I’d like to thank you for organizing this interview, which provides an opportunity to help the public better understand the true meaning, development status, and key contributors of BCI, rather than focusing solely on Musk’s promotional activities.
In fact, BCI research extends far beyond Musk’s endeavors. Recently, I proposed a four-stage developmental roadmap for BCIs*: (1) Brain Reading, (2) Brain Writing, (3) Brain-Computer Interaction, and (4) Brain-Intelligence Integration. This roadmap encompasses processes from basic signal decoding to advanced human-machine interaction. Currently, research is largely focused on decoding brain signals, a field in which both Musk and Tsinghua University in China are actively engaged.
*Professor Wang emphasizes that the scientific development of BCI will follow four phases: from Brain Reading (decoding motor, speech, memory, and consciousness) to the currently thriving field of Brain Writing (neural function modulation and reconstruction) and Brain-Computer Interaction (brain interfacing), eventually reaching Brain-Intelligence Integration (brain-inspired intelligence and digital life).
From the perspective of decoding brain signals, could using MRI scans also count as “Brain Reading”? International studies have already employed MRI and magnetoencephalography to analyze brain functions, which represents one direction of BCI research. Simultaneously, techniques such as electromagnetic stimulation are being explored to regulate brain activity.
The essence of BCI lies in achieving two-way information exchange between the human brain and external machines. We aim to enable this interaction through more intelligent means, such as using virtual reality to modulate brain activity. Therefore, I proposed BCI 3.0 (Brain-Computer Interaction), which emphasizes deep interaction and integration between the human brain and machines. The more advanced BCI 4.0 (Brain-Intelligence Integration) focuses on the coexistence and collaboration between human brains, intelligent agents, artificial intelligence, and future intelligent societies.
In these research directions, many Chinese neuroscientists, engineers, and physicians are actively exploring. For example, Huashan Hospital and Tiantan Hospital have achieved significant progress in this field.
In addition, we must strengthen science communication. The public needs to recognize the importance of BCI and the national commitment to its development. Relying solely on Musk’s research cannot represent the strategic development of a country. True strategic development involves core foundational technologies, which have profound implications for the health and well-being of society and its people.
Overall, BCI is advancing by integrating multiple factors, driving societal progress, forming the prototype of future industries, and becoming a vital part of national strategic planning.
Question: What are the advantages of China’s BCI development?
Wang Shouyan: First, we have a significant international advantage in terms of talent and disciplinary foundation. China’s BCI research began in the 1980s, and after decades of accumulated experience, we now possess a wealth of experience in BCI research, constituting a major strength.
Second, China has a solid foundation in medical and neurological disease research, which provides essential support for BCI development. We can leverage this foundation to make advances in the medical applications of BCI technologies.
Third, we have a long-standing foundation in technological development, particularly in scientific research and engineering technologies related to BCI, laying a solid groundwork for future progress.
However, we also face challenges, particularly in the integration of interdisciplinary research. We need to enhance collaboration among experts from various fields to jointly address major scientific, technological, and industrial challenges. Both the central government and the Shanghai government are actively planning and addressing these issues to further drive the development of BCIs.
Question: What breakthrough discoveries do you foresee in the field of Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) over the next 5 to 10 years?
Wang Shouyan: The future breakthroughs in BCIs are likely to focus on several key areas. First, significant advancements have been made by researchers at ETH Zurich in spinal cord rehabilitation*, particularly in technologies that enable paraplegic patients to walk again. This represents a cutting-edge direction where artificial intelligence intersects with BCIs. Additionally, the integration of brain-reading and brain-writing technologies, especially innovations in deep brain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease and pain management, is currently a major focus of international research in both basic science and clinical medicine.
*In China, the team led by Jia Fumin at Fudan University&#8217;s Institute of Brain-Inspired Intelligence Science and Technology has developed a new generation of implantable brain-spinal interface devices for patients with spinal cord injuries. This innovation won the 2024 National Disruptive Technology Innovation Competition and is expected to undergo its first clinical trial by the end of the year, offering hope for spinal cord injury patients to stand and walk again.
These breakthroughs are not accidental; they are driven by profound underlying forces. By analyzing these driving forces, we can anticipate future trends. China’s early brain initiatives strategically invested in critical technologies such as neural modulation and BCIs, laying a strong foundation for future technological breakthroughs.
One clear trend from these initiatives is the move toward intelligent implantable deep brain stimulation technologies. The national strategic goal is to achieve a leading position in global competition, leveraging China&#8217;s strengths in medical industries and technology to achieve leapfrog development.
Another potential breakthrough lies in the decoding of neural activity. China has extensive resources in clinical research and data accumulation. With the launch of upcoming major national projects, progress in brain information decoding is expected to accelerate, paving the way for new advancements in BCI technology.
Question: If we gather enough brain data, is it possible to build a general brain model similar to ChatGPT?
Wang Shouyan: Large language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT have indeed provided us with significant inspiration. However, this question should be approached from two perspectives: the problem and the methodology. While LLMs offer a promising approach for understanding and decoding brain information, they are not the sole solution to the problem.
Although large data-driven models are disruptive and innovative, helping us better interpret and analyze brain data, relying solely on one approach in brain science research often leads to bottlenecks. Therefore, we advocate for a research paradigm that combines mechanisms and methodologies. For instance, optogenetics can help us better understand specific neural phenomena.
Currently, we are conducting research on integrating LLMs with large-scale EEG data modeling. The critical question is whether these models can genuinely help us address fundamental scientific questions. The future direction is likely to involve the convergence of data, mechanisms, and modeling. The ultimate value and significance of this technical approach depend on its ability to solve major scientific challenges.
Question: What research question are you most focused on?
Wang Shouyan: My primary focus is on how to effectively model under limited data conditions. In hospital-based research, we often cannot collect sufficient large-scale datasets, particularly when studying specific diseases. For example, in implantable device research, studies involving dozens of patients are already considered substantial, while those with over a hundred patients are extremely rare.
Does this mean that patients in such circumstances should not be studied? Or that they do not deserve treatment? These questions are not only scientific but also philosophical in nature. We must explore how to conduct effective research with limited data. Specifically, we are currently focused on leveraging large language models (LLMs) for precise modeling with small datasets. This approach aims to develop more personalized and intelligent strategies for neural modulation and brain-computer interaction.
Question: Are there valuable research cases in the application of small data?
Wang Shouyan: I can share some examples from our research on deep brain stimulation (DBS) for Parkinson’s disease. In China, over 100 hospitals are now offering this treatment, and tens of thousands of patients undergo this surgery every year. However, there are still hundreds of thousands of patients who need treatment, but only a small fraction have access to it. Our current focus is on how to use more precise neural modulation technologies to help a broader range of patients, especially those with significantly varied symptoms, benefit from treatment.
Additionally, we are collaborating with Huashan Hospital and Tiantan Hospital to study chronic pain patients. This includes those who have no effective pharmaceutical treatments or even patients in a vegetative state. Our goal is to use disruptive technologies to help these patients reconnect and communicate with their families. The core of these studies is leveraging small datasets to develop more precise and effective treatments.
Question: What challenges and difficulties do you see in the development of the Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) field?
Wang Shouyan: One of the biggest challenges in the broader scientific research landscape is interdisciplinary collaboration. Currently, China’s research evaluation system, with its emphasis on publishing papers and securing funding, often creates conflicts of interest. Consequently, institutional and systemic issues, particularly barriers to interdisciplinary collaboration, pose significant difficulties.
The root of these barriers lies in a value assessment system historically driven by metrics such as the number of publications and performance indicators. Researchers tend to focus on their specialized fields and are often reluctant to engage deeply with experts from other disciplines. Additionally, issues related to data sharing, especially disputes over authorship, frequently complicate collaborations. These evaluation criteria not only affect the publication of scientific results but also directly impact researchers&#8217; year-end bonuses and personal assessments.
We are currently advocating for institutional innovation in the BCI field to break down these barriers. Chinese researchers are highly intelligent and hardworking, but overcoming these remaining challenges requires addressing systemic issues and establishing efficient collaborative teams. Adequate funding support and the creation of interdisciplinary platforms are essential. Other technical challenges can be resolved gradually in accordance with the natural progression of scientific development. Interdisciplinary collaboration is not an insurmountable scientific problem; instead, institutional obstacles represent the real bottleneck.
Question: What advice would you give to young scientists?
Wang Shouyan: BCI is a highly interdisciplinary field, making a broad knowledge base and the establishment of collaborative networks especially important. For young scientists, I have a few straightforward suggestions. First, read extensively and learn continuously. The old saying “read ten thousand books and travel ten thousand miles” remains relevant. Young scholars should visit and learn from different laboratories to broaden their horizons. Second, make friends and actively participate in academic conferences. Don’t hesitate to ask questions and engage in discussions during these events.
For students and postdoctoral researchers in the BCI field, stepping out of their narrow research focus is particularly critical. Understanding the scientific questions that other researchers are exploring will help them gain a broader perspective and achieve greater heights, ultimately making their work more forward-looking and practically meaningful. I hope everyone can gain something valuable from this process. Thank you.
<div style/>

[:en]<div style="line-height: 1.5;">
Foreword

With the rapid advancement of technology, Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs), serving as a vital bridge between the human brain and external devices, have progressively emerged as a research hotspot in neuroscience and artificial intelligence. Researchers worldwide are actively exploring innovations in this cutting-edge field, striving to overcome technical bottlenecks and enable smarter, more efficient human-machine interactions.

In this exclusive interview, we are honored to have Professor Wang Shouyan, Director of the Center for Neural Modulation and Brain-Computer Interface Research at Fudan University. Professor Wang provides an in-depth analysis of the current state, development advantages, and future trends of BCI research in China. He also shares forward-looking insights and invaluable experiences from his work in the field.

The following is the interview with Professor Wang Shouyan. We have condensed the text to make it easier to read.

Question: What is the current state of Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) development in China?

Wang Shouyan: I am from the Institute of Brain-Inspired Intelligence Science and Technology at Fudan University and am responsible for establishing the Center for Neural Modulation and Brain-Computer Interface Research. First, I’d like to thank you for organizing this interview, which provides an opportunity to help the public better understand the true meaning, development status, and key contributors of BCI, rather than focusing solely on Musk’s promotional activities.

In fact, BCI research extends far beyond Musk’s endeavors. Recently, I proposed a four-stage developmental roadmap for BCIs*: (1) Brain Reading, (2) Brain Writing, (3) Brain-Computer Interaction, and (4) Brain-Intelligence Integration. This roadmap encompasses processes from basic signal decoding to advanced human-machine interaction. Currently, research is largely focused on decoding brain signals, a field in which both Musk and Tsinghua University in China are actively engaged.

*Professor Wang emphasizes that the scientific development of BCI will follow four phases: from Brain Reading (decoding motor, speech, memory, and consciousness) to the currently thriving field of Brain Writing (neural function modulation and reconstruction) and Brain-Computer Interaction (brain interfacing), eventually reaching Brain-Intelligence Integration (brain-inspired intelligence and digital life).

From the perspective of decoding brain signals, could using MRI scans also count as “Brain Reading”? International studies have already employed MRI and magnetoencephalography to analyze brain functions, which represents one direction of BCI research. Simultaneously, techniques such as electromagnetic stimulation are being explored to regulate brain activity.

The essence of BCI lies in achieving two-way information exchange between the human brain and external machines. We aim to enable this interaction through more intelligent means, such as using virtual reality to modulate brain activity. Therefore, I proposed BCI 3.0 (Brain-Computer Interaction), which emphasizes deep interaction and integration between the human brain and machines. The more advanced BCI 4.0 (Brain-Intelligence Integration) focuses on the coexistence and collaboration between human brains, intelligent agents, artificial intelligence, and future intelligent societies.

In these research directions, many Chinese neuroscientists, engineers, and physicians are actively exploring. For example, Huashan Hospital and Tiantan Hospital have achieved significant progress in this field.

In addition, we must strengthen science communication. The public needs to recognize the importance of BCI and the national commitment to its development. Relying solely on Musk’s research cannot represent the strategic development of a country. True strategic development involves core foundational technologies, which have profound implications for the health and well-being of society and its people.

Overall, BCI is advancing by integrating multiple factors, driving societal progress, forming the prototype of future industries, and becoming a vital part of national strategic planning.

Question: What are the advantages of China’s BCI development?

Wang Shouyan: First, we have a significant international advantage in terms of talent and disciplinary foundation. China’s BCI research began in the 1980s, and after decades of accumulated experience, we now possess a wealth of experience in BCI research, constituting a major strength.

Second, China has a solid foundation in medical and neurological disease research, which provides essential support for BCI development. We can leverage this foundation to make advances in the medical applications of BCI technologies.

Third, we have a long-standing foundation in technological development, particularly in scientific research and engineering technologies related to BCI, laying a solid groundwork for future progress.

However, we also face challenges, particularly in the integration of interdisciplinary research. We need to enhance collaboration among experts from various fields to jointly address major scientific, technological, and industrial challenges. Both the central government and the Shanghai government are actively planning and addressing these issues to further drive the development of BCIs.

Question: What breakthrough discoveries do you foresee in the field of Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) over the next 5 to 10 years?

Wang Shouyan: The future breakthroughs in BCIs are likely to focus on several key areas. First, significant advancements have been made by researchers at ETH Zurich in spinal cord rehabilitation*, particularly in technologies that enable paraplegic patients to walk again. This represents a cutting-edge direction where artificial intelligence intersects with BCIs. Additionally, the integration of brain-reading and brain-writing technologies, especially innovations in deep brain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease and pain management, is currently a major focus of international research in both basic science and clinical medicine.

*In China, the team led by Jia Fumin at Fudan University's Institute of Brain-Inspired Intelligence Science and Technology has developed a new generation of implantable brain-spinal interface devices for patients with spinal cord injuries. This innovation won the 2024 National Disruptive Technology Innovation Competition and is expected to undergo its first clinical trial by the end of the year, offering hope for spinal cord injury patients to stand and walk again.

These breakthroughs are not accidental; they are driven by profound underlying forces. By analyzing these driving forces, we can anticipate future trends. China’s early brain initiatives strategically invested in critical technologies such as neural modulation and BCIs, laying a strong foundation for future technological breakthroughs.

One clear trend from these initiatives is the move toward intelligent implantable deep brain stimulation technologies. The national strategic goal is to achieve a leading position in global competition, leveraging China's strengths in medical industries and technology to achieve leapfrog development.

Another potential breakthrough lies in the decoding of neural activity. China has extensive resources in clinical research and data accumulation. With the launch of upcoming major national projects, progress in brain information decoding is expected to accelerate, paving the way for new advancements in BCI technology.

Question: If we gather enough brain data, is it possible to build a general brain model similar to ChatGPT?

Wang Shouyan: Large language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT have indeed provided us with significant inspiration. However, this question should be approached from two perspectives: the problem and the methodology. While LLMs offer a promising approach for understanding and decoding brain information, they are not the sole solution to the problem.

Although large data-driven models are disruptive and innovative, helping us better interpret and analyze brain data, relying solely on one approach in brain science research often leads to bottlenecks. Therefore, we advocate for a research paradigm that combines mechanisms and methodologies. For instance, optogenetics can help us better understand specific neural phenomena.

Currently, we are conducting research on integrating LLMs with large-scale EEG data modeling. The critical question is whether these models can genuinely help us address fundamental scientific questions. The future direction is likely to involve the convergence of data, mechanisms, and modeling. The ultimate value and significance of this technical approach depend on its ability to solve major scientific challenges.

Question: What research question are you most focused on?

Wang Shouyan: My primary focus is on how to effectively model under limited data conditions. In hospital-based research, we often cannot collect sufficient large-scale datasets, particularly when studying specific diseases. For example, in implantable device research, studies involving dozens of patients are already considered substantial, while those with over a hundred patients are extremely rare.

Does this mean that patients in such circumstances should not be studied? Or that they do not deserve treatment? These questions are not only scientific but also philosophical in nature. We must explore how to conduct effective research with limited data. Specifically, we are currently focused on leveraging large language models (LLMs) for precise modeling with small datasets. This approach aims to develop more personalized and intelligent strategies for neural modulation and brain-computer interaction.


Question: Are there valuable research cases in the application of small data?

Wang Shouyan: I can share some examples from our research on deep brain stimulation (DBS) for Parkinson’s disease. In China, over 100 hospitals are now offering this treatment, and tens of thousands of patients undergo this surgery every year. However, there are still hundreds of thousands of patients who need treatment, but only a small fraction have access to it. Our current focus is on how to use more precise neural modulation technologies to help a broader range of patients, especially those with significantly varied symptoms, benefit from treatment.

Additionally, we are collaborating with Huashan Hospital and Tiantan Hospital to study chronic pain patients. This includes those who have no effective pharmaceutical treatments or even patients in a vegetative state. Our goal is to use disruptive technologies to help these patients reconnect and communicate with their families. The core of these studies is leveraging small datasets to develop more precise and effective treatments.

Question: What challenges and difficulties do you see in the development of the Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) field?

Wang Shouyan: One of the biggest challenges in the broader scientific research landscape is interdisciplinary collaboration. Currently, China’s research evaluation system, with its emphasis on publishing papers and securing funding, often creates conflicts of interest. Consequently, institutional and systemic issues, particularly barriers to interdisciplinary collaboration, pose significant difficulties.

The root of these barriers lies in a value assessment system historically driven by metrics such as the number of publications and performance indicators. Researchers tend to focus on their specialized fields and are often reluctant to engage deeply with experts from other disciplines. Additionally, issues related to data sharing, especially disputes over authorship, frequently complicate collaborations. These evaluation criteria not only affect the publication of scientific results but also directly impact researchers' year-end bonuses and personal assessments.

We are currently advocating for institutional innovation in the BCI field to break down these barriers. Chinese researchers are highly intelligent and hardworking, but overcoming these remaining challenges requires addressing systemic issues and establishing efficient collaborative teams. Adequate funding support and the creation of interdisciplinary platforms are essential. Other technical challenges can be resolved gradually in accordance with the natural progression of scientific development. Interdisciplinary collaboration is not an insurmountable scientific problem; instead, institutional obstacles represent the real bottleneck.

Question: What advice would you give to young scientists?

Wang Shouyan: BCI is a highly interdisciplinary field, making a broad knowledge base and the establishment of collaborative networks especially important. For young scientists, I have a few straightforward suggestions. First, read extensively and learn continuously. The old saying “read ten thousand books and travel ten thousand miles” remains relevant. Young scholars should visit and learn from different laboratories to broaden their horizons. Second, make friends and actively participate in academic conferences. Don’t hesitate to ask questions and engage in discussions during these events.

For students and postdoctoral researchers in the BCI field, stepping out of their narrow research focus is particularly critical. Understanding the scientific questions that other researchers are exploring will help them gain a broader perspective and achieve greater heights, ultimately making their work more forward-looking and practically meaningful. I hope everyone can gain something valuable from this process. Thank you.
<div style/>[:]

Interview with Prof. Wang Shouyan: Do We Need Large Models or Small Models for Brain-Computer Interfaces?

[:en]Interview with Prof. Wang Shouyan: Do We Need Large Models or Small Models for Brain-Computer Interfaces?[:]

[:en]<div style="line-height: 1.5;">
On an ordinary evening, as you wrap up a day of work and sit down to start a game, the loading bar finishes, and a virtual world appears on the screen.

Immersed in the game, you suddenly notice an ant crawling slowly on your monitor. In that instant, an image from the novel The Three-Body Problem comes to mind. The ant feels like a subtle reminder of something profound, sending a chill down your spine. A startling thought strikes you like lightning—what if each of our lives, or even this vast world, is nothing more than a simulation crafted by an advanced civilization?

At first, the idea may seem absurd. But consider this: the foundation of our existence, much like many major discoveries in human history, has been overturned repeatedly. Five hundred years ago, geocentrism was an unshakable belief. Two hundred years ago, proposing that humans evolved from apes could have branded someone a heretic. Humanity's understanding of nature is a journey of realizing that we are not as exceptional as we once believed. This concept is embodied in the Copernican Principle, which asserts that no observer should regard themselves as uniquely special.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/simulation-1.png" alt="" width="433" height="399" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2697" />
▷ The diagram “M” (Latin for Mundus) from Johannes Kepler’s Epitome of Copernican Astronomy illustrates this point: Earth is just one of countless stars, a stark reminder that humans, whether on Earth or within the solar system, are not privileged observers of the universe.

1. Ancestor Simulation

If you are familiar with the history of video games, you might recall how gaming has evolved dramatically over just a few decades—from the simple, pixelated graphics of ping-pong games to the lifelike environments of modern massively multiplayer online games. Looking to the future, with the rapid advancement of virtual reality, the scenarios depicted in the sci-fi series Black Mirror—such as uploading and downloading consciousness—seem almost within reach.

In this context, the notion that "we are virtual beings living in a simulation" begins to feel less far-fetched. After all, on a cosmic timescale, a few decades are barely a blink of an eye. And as the Copernican Principle reminds us, it is statistically improbable that humanity represents the pinnacle of civilization in the universe.

So, how likely is it that we are living in a simulation? Once you begin to think seriously about this question, you'll realize you are not alone. Many physicists and philosophers have explored this possibility, sharing their thoughts through publications and public debates. In 2016, the American Museum of Natural History in New York hosted a panel where four physicists and a philosopher spent two hours discussing whether reality as we know it could be a simulation. Their estimates of the probability ranged widely, from as low as 1% to as high as 42%. That same year, Elon Musk famously declared in an interview that "we are most likely living in a simulation."

However, following the crowd has never been your style. Determined to explore this question independently, you start gathering evidence. Could we, in fact, be living in a simulation? And if so, is there a way to break free from it?

The type of "simulation" discussed here is not a simple game like The Sims. Instead, it is a comprehensive model of the observable universe—what scholars refer to as an Ancestor Simulation. [1] This hypothesis proposes that a civilization with sufficiently advanced technology might create a simulation on an immense scale. While we cannot predict the exact capabilities of such future technologies, we can attempt to estimate their upper limits based on the physical laws of our observable universe.

If running a simulation of this magnitude would require energy and computational power beyond the constraints of physics, we could argue that such a civilization could not exist. In that case, the Ancestor Simulation hypothesis would be disproven—or, at the very least, humanity’s existence within such a simulation would become highly improbable.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/simulation-cover-1024x768.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="768" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2698" />
▷ Source: Claire Merchlinsky

2. The Energy Required for Simulation

High-fidelity simulations necessitate immense information processing, which, with current technological capabilities, translates into extraordinarily high computational demands. In such scenarios, the state of every fundamental particle would need to be recorded and updated in real time, requiring computational resources on an astronomical scale. Furthermore, the energy needed to power these highly complex simulations would entail staggering demands. According to thermodynamic principles, extracting energy from cosmic background radiation to sustain computations of this magnitude would not only require overcoming theoretical physical limitations but also addressing significant practical challenges in technology.

These arguments suggest that, within our current technological and theoretical framework, energy constraints make it improbable that we are living in a simulated universe. However, such constraints may not represent an insurmountable barrier. For instance, a super-advanced civilization might bypass energy limitations by creating less precise simulations. Quantum mechanics, with its uncertainty principle—which prevents precise knowledge of an electron’s exact position—and the non-local effects of quantum entanglement, could serve as efficient methods to conserve computational resources during simulation construction.

If we are indeed part of a simulation, and its creators used resource-saving measures, we might uncover evidence of this illusion. One potential approach is to continuously increase the resolution of our observations to detect whether we encounter discrete, pixelated structures. This is similar to video games, where increasing the resolution can expose hidden inconsistencies or graphical artifacts. Interestingly, quantum mechanics already reveals that the world appears discontinuous at extremely small scales, lending some plausibility to the simulation hypothesis.

Moreover, in video games, wandering to the edges of the map often leads to graphical glitches or invisible "walls" that limit further exploration. By analogy, searching for similar anomalies could help determine whether we exist within a simplified ancestor simulation. However, in reality, humanity's farthest-reaching probe, Voyager 1, has traversed the edge of the solar system without encountering any discontinuities or anomalies. Likewise, the Hubble Space Telescope has captured images of galaxies over 10 billion light-years away without uncovering any apparent anomalies. While these observations cannot definitively rule out the possibility that we are living in a simulation, they do significantly reduce its likelihood.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/simulation-3.png" alt="" width="838" height="599" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2696" />
▷ Source: Staudinger + Franke

3. A Simulated Universe Does Not Require Full Brain Simulation

Beyond the vastness of the starry sky, the human mind is equally complex. The number of neural connections in the human brain is estimated to rival the number of stars in the observable universe. A 2024 study published in Science [2] conducted a nanoscale simulation of just 1 cubic millimeter of brain tissue, encompassing 57,000 cells and 150 million synapses. The resulting mapping data totaled 1.4 petabytes (Pb). When extrapolated to the full volume of the human brain, creating a static map of the entire brain would require 1.76 zettabytes (1 Pb = 1,024 terabytes [Tb], 1 Zb = 1,024 Pb). This vastly exceeds the parameter count of current open-source models, such as Llama 3.1, which had 405 gigabytes (GB) of parameters as of October 2024.

To create an ancestor simulation, it would be necessary to simulate not only every star in the sky but also the mental activities of every human who has ever lived. Attempting to replicate all neural activity from ancient times to the present on a supercomputer would demand energy that exceeds the physical limits of our universe, challenging the notion that we are living in a simulation [3].

However, one might argue that simulating mental activities does not always require extensive computation. A super-advanced civilization might only simulate minimal portions of the brain for most people, reserving significant computational resources for individuals engaged in deep thought. This raises an intriguing testable hypothesis: if billions of people simultaneously engage in reflective thinking, requiring full brain simulations, the computational load might overwhelm the simulation, causing delays reminiscent of frame rate drops in video games. Such anomalies could provide evidence supporting the simulation hypothesis.

Additionally, there are two counterarguments to the assertion that simulating human minds consumes excessive energy:

(1) On-Demand Rendering: In constructing an ancestor simulation, a super-advanced civilization might only render areas being actively observed. This is analogous to the "fog of war" in video games, where unobserved areas remain hidden, significantly reducing computational demands.

(2) Selective Simulation: The creators might simulate only the neural activities of "you," ensuring your subjective experience feels authentic while generating others' responses through simplified models. Current large-scale AI models can already simulate human-like interactions; for a civilization capable of ancestor simulations, this task would be trivial, drastically reducing energy consumption.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/simulation-4-1024x576.png" alt="" width="1024" height="576" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2695" />
▷ Source: Mart Biemans

Beyond energy considerations, another way to evaluate the simulation hypothesis is to detect inevitable computational errors. If we live in a simulation, modeling inaccuracies would eventually accumulate, creating observable inconsistencies—similar to how The Matrix required regular reboots. In video games, prolonged gameplay often reveals modeling errors that necessitate developer patches to maintain consistency. By analogy, if we live in a simulation, changes in fundamental constants, such as the speed of light, could serve as evidence. However, the brevity of human history and our understanding of physics limits our ability to detect such long-term changes. It is possible that such patches exist but operate on timescales of tens of thousands or even millions of years. Therefore, even though we have not observed changes in physical constants, we cannot completely rule out the possibility that we are living in a simulation.

An additional counterargument is that a super-advanced civilization might prohibit ancestor simulations for ethical reasons. While less robust, this argument reduces the likelihood of such simulations existing. Similar to how the Drake Equation explores the probability of extraterrestrial civilizations' existence—calculated by multiplying the number of stars in the universe by the probability of life arising on them and the probability that intelligent life is willing to communicate—thereby estimating the number of extraterrestrial civilizations capable of establishing communication.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/simulation-5-1024x511.png" alt="" width="1024" height="511" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2694" />
▷ Source: University of Rochester
The Drake Equation, originally used to estimate the number of extraterrestrial civilizations, now includes:
N: The number of civilizations capable of creating simulations. R*: The rate of star formation in the Milky Way. fp: The fraction of stars with planetary systems. ne: The average number of habitable planets per system. fe: The fraction of habitable planets where life arises. fi: The fraction of life-bearing planets where intelligent life evolves. fc: The fraction of intelligent life willing to communicate or simulate. L: The time such civilizations remain active.

By adding two new factors to the Drake Equation—first, the probability that intelligent life advances to the point of being able to simulate a world; second, the probability that a super-advanced civilization would prohibit ancestor simulations for ethical reasons—we can use the modified equation, based on current technological and cultural development, to estimate the probabilities of these new factors. This allows us to assess the number of planets that might be willing to simulate worlds and, consequently, infer the probability that we are living in a simulation.

4. Three Possibilities for a Simulated World

In his 2003 paper Are You Living in a Computer Simulation?, philosopher Nick Bostrom redefined the debate by proposing three possibilities that cover all potential scenarios:

First, humanity or other intelligent beings go extinct before achieving simulation technology.
Second, super-advanced civilizations capable of creating ancestor simulations either lack the will or face prohibitions against using such technology.
Third, We are currently living in an ancestor simulation.

To evaluate which of the first two possibilities is more likely, two critical questions arise.The first question examines the probability of life successfully reaching the singularity. For example, before humanity develops general artificial intelligence, could it face extinction due to catastrophic events like runaway climate change or nuclear war? On this issue, the scientific community provides some predictions, though the outcomes remain uncertain.

The second question delves into the societal structures and moral frameworks of super-advanced civilizations—a nearly impossible task. Just as a gorilla cannot grasp the utility humans derive from advanced technology, we cannot envision the motivations or priorities of beings capable of ancestor simulations. Perhaps such civilizations lack the drive to undertake the creation of simulations that, once initiated, require no further involvement. Alternatively, ethical considerations or cultural values might prohibit such endeavors altogether. However, our complete lack of insight into their reasoning makes assessing this possibility extremely challenging.

At its core, if we ourselves do not believe we are living in a simulation, there is little reason to assume that future post-human civilizations would conduct large-scale ancestor simulations. Conversely, if we think humanity could one day simulate an entire world, why not accept the likelihood that we are already part of such a simulation?

One way to approach this paradox is through Occam’s Razor, which suggests that the simplest explanation is often more likely than a complex one. Believing we live in a simulation assumes the existence of a super-advanced civilization, thereby adding unnecessary complexity to the model. The maxim “entities should not be multiplied without necessity” thus provides a compelling framework for addressing the simulation hypothesis. However, Occam’s Razor is not absolute; in some cases, scientific consistency, predictive power, or internal logic may require adopting a more complex model.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/simulation-6-1024x510.png" alt="" width="1024" height="510" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2693" />
▷ Source: Claudio Araos Marincovic

5. Why Is Speculative Thinking Meaningful?

Readers who have reached this point might wonder: “Like Zhuangzi dreaming of a butterfly or the butterfly dreaming of Zhuangzi, why should we concern ourselves with such abstract questions when life is already fraught with its own challenges?” This line of inquiry may seem akin to the philosophical stance of agnosticism—ultimately irresolvable. However, our concerns and curiosities drive exploration and foster awe for the universe’s diversity and mysteries. Throughout the history of science, many revolutionary discoveries have emerged from profound questions about the essence of existence.

When we explore the possibility of a simulated universe, we are not only questioning the nature of reality but also sparking deeper discussions about technology, ethics, and existence itself. For example, this inquiry intersects with advancing technologies such as virtual reality (VR) and mixed reality (MR), raising questions about how we treat virtual beings powered by AI-driven models. As we approach the advent of general artificial intelligence (AGI), such discussions also highlight concerns about losing control over intelligent agents and whether these agents might attempt to escape the simulated environments we create for them. Speculating on whether we are living in a simulation inspires research into AI alignment while also deepening our understanding of existence.

In the future, as technology advances and humanity’s understanding of the universe grows, we may approach these questions with entirely new perspectives. More detailed observations, refined data analyses, and novel technological methods could help us test these hypotheses. Yet, in the pursuit of truth, maintaining curiosity and humility toward the unknown remains among the most enduring values in scientific inquiry.
<div/>[:]

How Can We Determine If the Universe Is Not a Simulation?

[:en]How Can We Determine If the Universe Is Not a Simulation?[:]

<div style="line-height: 1.5;">
Introduction: Using advanced neuroimaging technologies such as fMRI and EEG, scientists have identified subtle signs of consciousness in patients previously diagnosed with a &#8220;vegetative state&#8221; (VS). This breakthrough not only challenges the traditional understanding of the vegetative state but also highlights the concept of &#8220;covert consciousness&#8221; or &#8220;cognitive-motor dissociation.&#8221;
In Edward Yang’s film Yi Yi, an elderly woman falls into a coma following an accidental fall. Her caregiver advises the family to talk to her daily to aid recovery. But does speaking to a comatose individual truly make a difference? Can such patients actually hear, or even retain any degree of consciousness?
1. Conscious Responses in the “Vegetative State”
The question of whether comatose individuals retain consciousness has sparked debate since the 1990s.
Modern medicine traditionally defines the vegetative state as a condition characterized by a lack of conscious awareness and unresponsiveness. Yet, research indicates that 13–19% of patients diagnosed with VS or coma exhibit conscious responses to external stimuli.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-1.png" alt="" width="970" height="274" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2688" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-1.png 970w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-1-300x85.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-1-768x217.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 970px) 100vw, 970px" /> 
▷ Owen, Adrian M., et al. &#8220;Detecting awareness in the vegetative state.&#8221; science 313.5792 (2006): 1402-1402.
A groundbreaking 2006 study published in Science (Owen et al., 2006) reported a compelling case [1]: a 23-year-old female patient in a vegetative state following a traffic accident demonstrated neural activity indistinguishable from that of healthy individuals when exposed to linguistic stimuli. Strikingly, when presented with sentences containing ambiguity, her left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex displayed neural responses typical of language comprehension.
Even more remarkably, the patient exhibited evidence of &#8220;imaginative behavior.&#8221; When instructed to imagine specific actions such as playing tennis or walking (motor imagery), her neural activity was indistinguishable from that of healthy controls.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-2-1024x763.png" alt="" width="1024" height="763" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2687" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-2-1024x763.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-2-300x223.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-2-768x572.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-2.png 1046w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /> 
▷ The study monitored the activity of the supplementary motor area (SMA) in both the patient and a control group of 12 healthy volunteers during the process of imagining playing tennis. When imagining moving around her home, the researchers detected neural activity in the parahippocampal gyrus (PPA), posterior parietal cortex (PPC), and premotor cortex (PMC).
Despite meeting the clinical criteria for a vegetative state, her ability to comprehend and follow instructions suggested a preserved awareness of herself and her environment. This study underscored that neural activity in response to stimuli can serve as a marker of consciousness, while its absence does not necessarily confirm unconsciousness.
Previously, it was widely believed that comatose patients either progressed to brain death or transitioned into a vegetative state—both thought to lack consciousness entirely. However, Adrian Owen’s findings introduced the possibility of intermediary states, such as the &#8220;minimally conscious state&#8221; (MCS) or &#8220;covert consciousness.&#8221;
This raises a profound question: how can we accurately determine whether a person, especially one unable to communicate verbally or behaviorally, retains consciousness?
2. Determining the Presence of Consciousness
To assess the presence of consciousness in individuals with severe neurological conditions, it is crucial to first understand the classifications of death. Death is generally divided into two main categories: legal death (the cessation of legal personhood) and natural death, which itself encompasses three progressive stages: clinical death, brain death, and biological death [2].
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-3.png" alt="" width="709" height="415" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2686" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-3.png 709w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-3-300x176.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 709px) 100vw, 709px" /> 
The vegetative state (VS) is a condition that resembles these stages but retains certain physiological functions. According to the Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy [3]:
The vegetative state is a chronic condition in which patients can sustain blood pressure, respiration, and cardiac functions but lack higher cognitive abilities. While the hypothalamus and medullary brainstem functions remain intact to support cardiopulmonary and autonomic systems, the cortex suffers severe damage, eliminating cognitive function. Despite this, the reticular activating system (RAS) remains functional, allowing wakefulness. Midbrain or pontine reflexes may or may not be present. Typically, such patients lack self-awareness and interact with their environment only via reflexive responses.
However, findings from Owen’s team demonstrate that patients diagnosed as being in a vegetative state may indeed possess self-awareness and can even interact with their environment autonomously through neural activity. For example, patients have been shown to imagine actions, such as playing tennis, in response to instructions from clinicians. This neural activity, which can be detected using fMRI or EEG, indicates the presence of consciousness despite the absence of observable physical behavior. This phenomenon is referred to as &#8220;covert consciousness.&#8221;
3. Cognitive-Motor Dissociation: A New Understanding of Consciousness
Building on Adrian Owen&#8217;s groundbreaking research, subsequent studies have confirmed the phenomenon of &#8220;covert consciousness&#8221; in patients previously classified as being in a vegetative state. These findings, often based on motor imagery techniques, have identified a condition termed Cognitive-Motor Dissociation (CMD).
CMD describes a state in which patients demonstrate measurable neural responses to external stimuli, including motor imagery comparable to that of healthy individuals. However, due to motor system impairments, they are unable to execute corresponding physical actions.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-4.png" alt="" width="856" height="310" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2685" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-4.png 856w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-4-300x109.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-4-768x278.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 856px) 100vw, 856px" /> 
▷ Schiff, Nicholas D. &#8220;Cognitive motor dissociation following severe brain injuries.&#8221; JAMA neurology 72.12 (2015): 1413-1415.
In 2015, Nicholas D. Schiff’s team used advanced imaging techniques such as Dynamic Causal Modeling (DCM) and Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) to assess the functional integrity of brain networks supporting motor imagery in these patients. Their research aimed to uncover the neural mechanisms underlying Cognitive-Motor Dissociation [4].
The study revealed that in healthy individuals, excitatory coupling between the thalamus and motor cortex is critical for executing motor behaviors. However, in patients with covert consciousness, analyses using DCM and DTI demonstrated a selective disruption of this coupling. This disruption explains the dissociation between preserved motor imagery and absent skeletal movement. It is akin to operating the mechanical arm of an excavator when the circuit between the control panel and the arm is severed—you can still issue commands, but the arm cannot carry out the movements.
*DCM: A neuroimaging technique that examines causal relationships and connectivity between brain regions, providing insights into their functional interactions. 
DTI: An MRI-based method for mapping the direction and integrity of white matter tracts, offering a detailed view of brain structural connectivity and its changes.
4. Research on the Prevalence of Cognitive-Motor Dissociation
Patients with Cognitive-Motor Dissociation (CMD) are often misdiagnosed as being in a vegetative state. However, there is currently no standardized method for accurately identifying CMD. The mechanism identified by Schiff&#8217;s team, discussed earlier, may not apply universally to all CMD cases. Moreover, previous studies on CMD have generally been small-scale, fragmented, and lacking consistency, with limited sample sizes. Under these conditions, developing a globally applicable standard for patient assessment is challenging, let alone designing targeted treatment approaches for CMD.
To address this issue, the paper titled &#8220;Cognitive Motor Dissociation in Disorders of Consciousness&#8221;, [5] supported by the Tianqiao Chen Institute-MGH Research Scholar Award, offers a potential solution. This study, published in The New England Journal of Medicine in August 2024, features Chen Scholar Brian L. Edlow as a key participant.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-5.png" alt="" width="744" height="352" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2684" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-5.png 744w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-5-300x142.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 744px) 100vw, 744px" /> 
▷ Bodien, Yelena G., et al. &#8220;Cognitive motor dissociation in disorders of consciousness.&#8221; New England Journal of Medicine 391.7 (2024): 598-608.
This study recruited patients from diverse settings, including intensive care units, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, and community populations. A unified inclusion criterion was applied: participants had no prior history of neurological or psychiatric disorders and were physiologically capable of undergoing brain imaging techniques, including MRI and EEG.
The research analyzed 353 adult patients diagnosed with disorders of consciousness using motor imagery tasks assessed via fMRI and EEG. Among these, 241 patients were classified as being in a coma, a vegetative state, or a minimally conscious state (MCS) based on the internationally recognized Coma Recovery Scale-Revised (CRS-R). Notably, 25% (60 patients) of this group exhibited CMD, characterized by task-based neural responses despite the absence of behavioral responses. Additionally, 112 patients were diagnosed as being in an MCS+ state or as having recovered from MCS. Among this subgroup, 43 patients (38%) exhibited observable task-based responses to commands detected via fMRI, EEG, or both.
*Minimally conscious states are further categorized as MCS− and MCS+, based on language processing abilities: MCS+ patients demonstrate simple command-following, intelligible verbal expression, or conscious but non-functional communication. MCS− patients exhibit more limited behaviors, such as visual pursuit, localization to noxious stimuli, or basic spontaneous activities like grasping bedsheets.
This study reported a higher prevalence of CMD (25%) than previous research, which estimated that 10–20% of patients with disorders of consciousness exhibit CMD symptoms. While traditional behavioral metrics like CRS-R offer valuable insights into assessing patient consciousness and responsiveness, task-based neuroimaging technologies significantly enhance diagnostic accuracy. Notably, the combined use of EEG and fMRI further improves measurement precision. These findings suggest that the prevalence of CMD may have been underestimated in prior studies.
5. The Significance of Measuring Consciousness in the Vegetative State
Imagine being aware of everything around you—the hum of medical equipment by your bedside, the whispers of family and friends—yet being unable to speak, move, or respond in any way. This state of isolation and helplessness could lead one to abandon even the faintest will to live. Although the phenomenon of &#8220;living dead&#8221; occurs in only a minority of vegetative state patients, every individual, no matter how rare their condition, represents a unique and precious life.
Whether driven by technological advancement or humanistic ethics, we need a measurement method that is more accessible, precise, and cost-effective to determine the consciousness state of comatose patients. The research conducted by Y.G. Bodien and colleagues stands out by integrating patient data from multiple locations and unifying measurement methodologies through brain imaging techniques. This unprecedented approach has maximized the accuracy of identifying Cognitive-Motor Dissociation (CMD) patients and pointed the way forward for future medical technologies and treatments. Most importantly, it offers a renewed sense of hope to those trapped in a silent world.
<div/>

[:en]<div style="line-height: 1.5;">
Introduction: Using advanced neuroimaging technologies such as fMRI and EEG, scientists have identified subtle signs of consciousness in patients previously diagnosed with a "vegetative state" (VS). This breakthrough not only challenges the traditional understanding of the vegetative state but also highlights the concept of "covert consciousness" or "cognitive-motor dissociation."

In Edward Yang’s film Yi Yi, an elderly woman falls into a coma following an accidental fall. Her caregiver advises the family to talk to her daily to aid recovery. But does speaking to a comatose individual truly make a difference? Can such patients actually hear, or even retain any degree of consciousness?

1. Conscious Responses in the “Vegetative State”

The question of whether comatose individuals retain consciousness has sparked debate since the 1990s.

Modern medicine traditionally defines the vegetative state as a condition characterized by a lack of conscious awareness and unresponsiveness. Yet, research indicates that 13–19% of patients diagnosed with VS or coma exhibit conscious responses to external stimuli.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-1.png" alt="" width="970" height="274" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2688" />
▷ Owen, Adrian M., et al. "Detecting awareness in the vegetative state." science 313.5792 (2006): 1402-1402.

A groundbreaking 2006 study published in Science (Owen et al., 2006) reported a compelling case [1]: a 23-year-old female patient in a vegetative state following a traffic accident demonstrated neural activity indistinguishable from that of healthy individuals when exposed to linguistic stimuli. Strikingly, when presented with sentences containing ambiguity, her left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex displayed neural responses typical of language comprehension.

Even more remarkably, the patient exhibited evidence of "imaginative behavior." When instructed to imagine specific actions such as playing tennis or walking (motor imagery), her neural activity was indistinguishable from that of healthy controls.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-2-1024x763.png" alt="" width="1024" height="763" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2687" />
▷ The study monitored the activity of the supplementary motor area (SMA) in both the patient and a control group of 12 healthy volunteers during the process of imagining playing tennis. When imagining moving around her home, the researchers detected neural activity in the parahippocampal gyrus (PPA), posterior parietal cortex (PPC), and premotor cortex (PMC).

Despite meeting the clinical criteria for a vegetative state, her ability to comprehend and follow instructions suggested a preserved awareness of herself and her environment. This study underscored that neural activity in response to stimuli can serve as a marker of consciousness, while its absence does not necessarily confirm unconsciousness.

Previously, it was widely believed that comatose patients either progressed to brain death or transitioned into a vegetative state—both thought to lack consciousness entirely. However, Adrian Owen’s findings introduced the possibility of intermediary states, such as the "minimally conscious state" (MCS) or "covert consciousness."

This raises a profound question: how can we accurately determine whether a person, especially one unable to communicate verbally or behaviorally, retains consciousness?

2. Determining the Presence of Consciousness

To assess the presence of consciousness in individuals with severe neurological conditions, it is crucial to first understand the classifications of death. Death is generally divided into two main categories: legal death (the cessation of legal personhood) and natural death, which itself encompasses three progressive stages: clinical death, brain death, and biological death [2].

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-3.png" alt="" width="709" height="415" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2686" />
The vegetative state (VS) is a condition that resembles these stages but retains certain physiological functions. According to the Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy [3]:

The vegetative state is a chronic condition in which patients can sustain blood pressure, respiration, and cardiac functions but lack higher cognitive abilities. While the hypothalamus and medullary brainstem functions remain intact to support cardiopulmonary and autonomic systems, the cortex suffers severe damage, eliminating cognitive function. Despite this, the reticular activating system (RAS) remains functional, allowing wakefulness. Midbrain or pontine reflexes may or may not be present. Typically, such patients lack self-awareness and interact with their environment only via reflexive responses.

However, findings from Owen’s team demonstrate that patients diagnosed as being in a vegetative state may indeed possess self-awareness and can even interact with their environment autonomously through neural activity. For example, patients have been shown to imagine actions, such as playing tennis, in response to instructions from clinicians. This neural activity, which can be detected using fMRI or EEG, indicates the presence of consciousness despite the absence of observable physical behavior. This phenomenon is referred to as "covert consciousness."

3. Cognitive-Motor Dissociation: A New Understanding of Consciousness

Building on Adrian Owen's groundbreaking research, subsequent studies have confirmed the phenomenon of "covert consciousness" in patients previously classified as being in a vegetative state. These findings, often based on motor imagery techniques, have identified a condition termed Cognitive-Motor Dissociation (CMD).

CMD describes a state in which patients demonstrate measurable neural responses to external stimuli, including motor imagery comparable to that of healthy individuals. However, due to motor system impairments, they are unable to execute corresponding physical actions.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-4.png" alt="" width="856" height="310" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2685" />
▷ Schiff, Nicholas D. "Cognitive motor dissociation following severe brain injuries." JAMA neurology 72.12 (2015): 1413-1415.

In 2015, Nicholas D. Schiff’s team used advanced imaging techniques such as Dynamic Causal Modeling (DCM) and Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) to assess the functional integrity of brain networks supporting motor imagery in these patients. Their research aimed to uncover the neural mechanisms underlying Cognitive-Motor Dissociation [4].

The study revealed that in healthy individuals, excitatory coupling between the thalamus and motor cortex is critical for executing motor behaviors. However, in patients with covert consciousness, analyses using DCM and DTI demonstrated a selective disruption of this coupling. This disruption explains the dissociation between preserved motor imagery and absent skeletal movement. It is akin to operating the mechanical arm of an excavator when the circuit between the control panel and the arm is severed—you can still issue commands, but the arm cannot carry out the movements.

*DCM: A neuroimaging technique that examines causal relationships and connectivity between brain regions, providing insights into their functional interactions.
DTI: An MRI-based method for mapping the direction and integrity of white matter tracts, offering a detailed view of brain structural connectivity and its changes.

4. Research on the Prevalence of Cognitive-Motor Dissociation

Patients with Cognitive-Motor Dissociation (CMD) are often misdiagnosed as being in a vegetative state. However, there is currently no standardized method for accurately identifying CMD. The mechanism identified by Schiff's team, discussed earlier, may not apply universally to all CMD cases. Moreover, previous studies on CMD have generally been small-scale, fragmented, and lacking consistency, with limited sample sizes. Under these conditions, developing a globally applicable standard for patient assessment is challenging, let alone designing targeted treatment approaches for CMD.

To address this issue, the paper titled "Cognitive Motor Dissociation in Disorders of Consciousness", [5] supported by the Tianqiao Chen Institute-MGH Research Scholar Award, offers a potential solution. This study, published in The New England Journal of Medicine in August 2024, features Chen Scholar Brian L. Edlow as a key participant.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/vegetativee-5.png" alt="" width="744" height="352" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2684" />
▷ Bodien, Yelena G., et al. "Cognitive motor dissociation in disorders of consciousness." New England Journal of Medicine 391.7 (2024): 598-608.

This study recruited patients from diverse settings, including intensive care units, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, and community populations. A unified inclusion criterion was applied: participants had no prior history of neurological or psychiatric disorders and were physiologically capable of undergoing brain imaging techniques, including MRI and EEG.

The research analyzed 353 adult patients diagnosed with disorders of consciousness using motor imagery tasks assessed via fMRI and EEG. Among these, 241 patients were classified as being in a coma, a vegetative state, or a minimally conscious state (MCS) based on the internationally recognized Coma Recovery Scale-Revised (CRS-R). Notably, 25% (60 patients) of this group exhibited CMD, characterized by task-based neural responses despite the absence of behavioral responses. Additionally, 112 patients were diagnosed as being in an MCS+ state or as having recovered from MCS. Among this subgroup, 43 patients (38%) exhibited observable task-based responses to commands detected via fMRI, EEG, or both.

*Minimally conscious states are further categorized as MCS− and MCS+, based on language processing abilities: MCS+ patients demonstrate simple command-following, intelligible verbal expression, or conscious but non-functional communication. MCS− patients exhibit more limited behaviors, such as visual pursuit, localization to noxious stimuli, or basic spontaneous activities like grasping bedsheets.

This study reported a higher prevalence of CMD (25%) than previous research, which estimated that 10–20% of patients with disorders of consciousness exhibit CMD symptoms. While traditional behavioral metrics like CRS-R offer valuable insights into assessing patient consciousness and responsiveness, task-based neuroimaging technologies significantly enhance diagnostic accuracy. Notably, the combined use of EEG and fMRI further improves measurement precision. These findings suggest that the prevalence of CMD may have been underestimated in prior studies.

5. The Significance of Measuring Consciousness in the Vegetative State

Imagine being aware of everything around you—the hum of medical equipment by your bedside, the whispers of family and friends—yet being unable to speak, move, or respond in any way. This state of isolation and helplessness could lead one to abandon even the faintest will to live. Although the phenomenon of "living dead" occurs in only a minority of vegetative state patients, every individual, no matter how rare their condition, represents a unique and precious life.

Whether driven by technological advancement or humanistic ethics, we need a measurement method that is more accessible, precise, and cost-effective to determine the consciousness state of comatose patients. The research conducted by Y.G. Bodien and colleagues stands out by integrating patient data from multiple locations and unifying measurement methodologies through brain imaging techniques. This unprecedented approach has maximized the accuracy of identifying Cognitive-Motor Dissociation (CMD) patients and pointed the way forward for future medical technologies and treatments. Most importantly, it offers a renewed sense of hope to those trapped in a silent world.
<div/>
[:]

Hearing the Silent Soul: Consciousness in Vegetative State Patients

[:en]Hearing the Silent Soul: Consciousness in Vegetative State Patients[:]

From The Journals

Why Can’t Musk’s “Blind Vision” Surpass Natural Sight?

[:en]Why Can’t Musk’s “Blind Vision” Surpass Natural Sight?[:]

“Fantasizing” May Not Be Able to Produce “Truth”

[:en]“Fantasizing” May Not Be Able to Produce “Truth”[:]

How to Unify the Measurement of Consciousness in All Things

[:en]How to Unify the Measurement of Consciousness in All Things[:]

<div style="line-height: 1.5;">
On September 6, 2024, the delightful aromas of food wafted from the Sinan Mansion in Shanghai, like an invisible web quietly spreading and attracting numerous visitors to embark on a wonderful experience of &#8220;Brain and Food.&#8221;
According to Professor Mao Ying, the initiator of the event, Dean of Huashan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University and Director of the Clinical Translational Research Center of Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute, this interdisciplinary science communication event is the first session of the &#8220;Brain Exploration&#8221; series, co-hosted by the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI) and the Chinese Neuroscience Society. Several neuroscientists were invited to join renowned food critics in engaging the public through academic presentations, scientific experiments, and storytelling, sharing knowledge about how food influences cognition, emotions, and behavior. 
&nbsp;
<h2>1. Four Olfactory Truths Beyond Cognition</h2>
The book The Science of Tasting mentions five basic taste types: sour, sweet, bitter, salty, and umami. However, our rich food experiences result from the combined effects of multiple senses, including smell, taste, and touch, with olfaction playing a particularly crucial role. As Researcher Zhou Wen from the Institute of Psychology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences stated during the forum:
“Most perceptions of food flavors come from olfaction rather than taste.”
In fact, there are two main pathways for perceiving odors—the anterior nasal pathway and the posterior nasal pathway. The anterior pathway refers to odor molecules emitted by food entering through the nostrils and reaching the olfactory epithelium. Various olfactory receptors distributed on the olfactory epithelium convert chemical signals into electrical signals, which are then sent to the olfactory bulb, allowing us to smell the food’s aroma. The posterior pathway occurs during chewing; as food is heated in the mouth and mixed with saliva, its odor molecules enter the nasal cavity during exhalation, activating olfactory receptors in the same area and transmitting information to the olfactory bulb.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food1.png" alt="" width="836" height="470" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2611" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food1.png 836w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food1-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food1-768x432.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 836px) 100vw, 836px" /> 
▷ Anterior and posterior nasal pathways for odor perception
“Odors do not exist as physical entities; they are encoded by neural networks in the brain.”
Odors are not inherently contained within the chemical molecules themselves; rather, they are processed by olfactory neurons in the brain to form a dynamic spatiotemporal pattern. Different odor molecules activate different glomeruli at various locations in the olfactory bulb, and the order of activation relates to the components and dynamic characteristics of the odor. Therefore, individual perceptions of odors include a high sensitivity to temporal information and responses to continuous changes.
In this way, our olfactory system acts like a &#8220;chemical analyst,&#8221; accurately analyzing the chemical composition of the environment and its dynamic changes. Olfactory information begins in the olfactory bulb and spreads via the olfactory tract to multiple key brain regions in the limbic system, such as the piriform cortex, amygdala (emotion center), and entorhinal cortex (brain GPS), resulting in the sensation of smell.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food2.png" alt="" width="775" height="436" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2610" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food2.png 775w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food2-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food2-768x432.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 775px) 100vw, 775px" /> 
▷ Spatiotemporal Coding of Olfactory Perception
“Humans are also adept at using odors for localization, with abilities rivaling those of dogs, provided they get low enough.”
Since olfactory perception primarily involves ipsilateral conduction, the brain can accurately identify odors sampled from different spatial areas by the left and right nostrils. With two nostrils, humans theoretically possess the ability to perceive direction through smell to facilitate localization. A study on olfactory localization involving humans and dogs showed that [1], with appropriate training, blindfolded humans can effectively navigate using smell and continuously adjust their route, ultimately tracking down a target—chocolate.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food3.png" alt="" width="784" height="441" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2609" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food3.png 784w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food3-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food3-768x432.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 784px) 100vw, 784px" /> 
▷ Olfactory Localization Experiment
Zhou Wen explained that her laboratory conducted a study on determining direction based on optic flow [2], which also found that when visual cues are insufficient to distinguish direction, our judgment of the direction of movement is influenced by the concentration of odors in the nostrils. The brain tends to perceive movement toward the side with the higher concentration. This implies that the brain can synthesize analysis based on odor concentration and provide directional clues. It’s no wonder people often find themselves wandering into the bakery section while shopping.
“Compared to other senses, olfaction more readily evokes memories and emotions.”
Odors can elicit rich emotional experiences and vivid memory fragments, often imbued with strong spatiotemporal information; specific smells can trigger unique memories of particular people or places. For example, the scent of braised pork may remind one of their mother and scenes from childhood when she was busy in the kitchen; a whiff of flowers may evoke memories of learning to ride a bike with a grandmother&#8230;
These spatiotemporal memories carried by smells benefit from the hippocampus&#8217;s [3] important role in memory formation, particularly in autobiographical recollection (personal past experiences). The transmission of olfactory signals and memory often impacts structures such as the amygdala and hippocampus, further linking emotions, memories, and spatiotemporal perception.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food4.png" alt="" width="878" height="494" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2615" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food4.png 878w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food4-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food4-768x432.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 878px) 100vw, 878px" /> 
▷ Functional Connectivity of the Hippocampus and Olfactory System
Thus, losing the sense of smell means not only losing a part of sensory experience but also severing a rich emotional world associated with olfactory memories. If prolonged loss of smell occurs due to viral infections or neurodegenerative diseases, it may even affect an individual’s emotional state. To restore olfactory function, it is crucial to reestablish connections between smells and existing memories in the brain. For instance, when seeing soy sauce, one should strive to recall its scent, thereby strengthening neural connections and aiding olfactory recovery.
Olfaction is vital for most people, influencing not only daily life quality but also playing a key role in emotional connections and social interactions. 
&nbsp;
<h2>2. The &#8220;Manipulated&#8221; Eating Behavior</h2>
Olfaction helps humans locate food, but actual eating behavior is influenced by multiple internal and external factors, such as physiological state, the allure of food, and individual anxiety levels.
“CRHLHA neurons play a crucial role during eating.”
Researcher Xu Huatai from the Lingang Laboratory introduced a type of neuron in the lateral hypothalamus of mammals called corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons (CRHLHA neurons). These neurons become active during eating, and their firing activity can be observed and recorded in the laboratory. Seeing or smelling food can also stimulate the activation of CRHLHA neurons; during hunger, the activity level of CRHLHA neurons is higher than when satiated, reflecting dynamic changes in appetite.[4]
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food5.png" alt="" width="830" height="467" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2614" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food5.png 830w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food5-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food5-768x432.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 830px) 100vw, 830px" /> 
▷ Activity Levels of CRHLHA Neurons Reflect Appetite Changes
“Even when full, the deliciousness of food can entice further eating.”
Generally, after eating, our attraction to food decreases significantly. However, as the saying goes, “the stomach for meals and the stomach for dessert are never the same.” Even when satiated, CRHLHA neurons can become active again when faced with tempting chocolates or desserts, as if saying, “Just a little more.” Even the brain cannot resist the “pure pleasure” that delicious food brings.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food6.png" alt="" width="937" height="527" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2613" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food6.png 937w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food6-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food6-768x432.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 937px) 100vw, 937px" /> 
▷ CRHLHA Neurons Activate in Response to Preferred Food Signals When Satiated
“Eating and anxiety behaviors share a common neural circuitry.”
In nature, animals tend to reduce their eating frequency, activity level, and exploratory behavior under stressful conditions, demonstrating what is referred to as “eating anxiety.” In experimental studies, researcher Xu Huatai manipulated the activity of CRHLHA neurons in mice, achieving artificial control over their eating behavior and altering their perception of safety and anxiety levels.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food7.png" alt="" width="822" height="462" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2612" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food7.png 822w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food7-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food7-768x432.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 822px) 100vw, 822px" /> 
▷ Eating and Safety Perception
By using optogenetic technology, researchers can increase or decrease the activity of CRHLHA neurons, leading to corresponding eating or refusal behaviors in the manipulated mice. In the experiments, artificially lowering the activity of CRHLHA neurons significantly reduced the eating behavior of hungry mice, even in the presence of enticing chocolates, which led to a decreased desire to eat. Conversely, artificially activating CRHLHA neurons caused the mice to &#8220;override their instincts,&#8221; increasing eating behavior and displaying risk-taking exploratory behavior.
Xu Huatai believes, “Current research results reveal the shared neural basis of eating and anxiety behaviors. However, changes in eating behavior under anxiety in humans are much more complex than in mice. On one hand, people rarely need to consider personal safety when eating in social settings; on the other hand, individuals react differently to anxiety, which can lead to extremes such as binge eating or anorexia.” 
&nbsp;
<h2>3. “Out of Control” Eating Motivation</h2>
Binge eating and anorexia are two manifestations of &#8220;out-of-control&#8221; eating motivation. Professor Zhou Yudong, Vice Dean of the School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine at Zhejiang University, explains that &#8220;eating behavior is primarily regulated by the reward center in the hypothalamus of the brain.&#8221;
“As a natural reward, food—similar to money, games, drugs, and maternal love—can enhance eating behavior through reinforcement.”
What constitutes &#8220;delicious food&#8221;? While foodies might offer poetic answers, for the brain, the answer may be quite straightforward: “high-energy” foods. Altering the composition of fats, proteins, or carbohydrates in food can effectively influence appetite. High-fat foods, in particular, are more likely to stimulate appetite compared to proteins and carbohydrates. Even in high-stress environments, high-fat foods can persistently drive foraging behavior, a phenomenon known as &#8220;compulsive eating&#8221; or &#8220;uncontrolled eating.&#8221;
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food8.png" alt="" width="880" height="495" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2619" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food8.png 880w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food8-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food8-768x432.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 880px) 100vw, 880px" /> 
▷ Reward-driven Uncontrolled Eating Induced by Food
What changes occur in the brain that control eating motivation behind compulsive eating behaviors? Professor Zhou’s team discovered that,
“The anteroventral periventricular nucleus (aPVT) plays a key role in compulsive eating behaviors and approach-avoidance conflicts.”
In animal experiments, mice subjected to high-fat diets exhibited behaviors reminiscent of compulsive eating, such as overcoming fears of open spaces and electric shocks to forage boldly. Notably, activating aPVT neurons in normally fed mice resulted in behaviors similar to those of high-fat diet mice.[5]
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food9.png" alt="" width="926" height="521" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2618" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food9.png 926w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food9-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food9-768x432.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 926px) 100vw, 926px" /> 
▷ aPVT: A New Food Reward Center
“The underlying mechanism of compulsive eating involves metabolic inflammation in the brain caused by excessive nutrient intake.”
Further research revealed that lipid molecules from high-fat food intake trigger inflammation in the aPVT region, promoting increased appetite and driving compulsive eating behaviors. This finding highlights the intricate connections between the nervous system, endocrine system, and immune system. Excessive energy intake leads to energy stress, resulting in central and peripheral metabolic inflammation. This may affect immune and metabolic functions, increasing the risk of metabolic diseases, neurodegenerative disorders (such as Alzheimer&#8217;s and Parkinson&#8217;s), cardiovascular diseases, and cancers.
Therefore, from a neuroscientific perspective, Professor Zhou reminds us, &#8220;There is a close relationship between food choices and disease, emphasizing the need to maintain a balanced diet for both physical and brain health.&#8221;
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food10.png" alt="" width="779" height="438" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2617" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food10.png 779w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food10-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food10-768x432.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 779px) 100vw, 779px" /> 
▷ High-fat diet induces inflammation in the aPVT brain region and promotes compulsive eating behavior
From the wondrous role of olfaction to the complex regulation of eating behavior and the phenomenon of &#8220;out-of-control&#8221; eating motivation, scientists at the &#8220;Brain and Food Forum&#8221; used vivid experiments and rigorous data to reveal the intricate neuroscience behind delicious food to both online and offline audiences. Looking ahead, as research in brain science continues to deepen, we anticipate uncovering more secrets of the interaction between food and the brain. This will enhance our understanding of human eating behavior and provide new ideas and methods for preventing and treating diet-related diseases.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Picture11.png" alt="" width="800" height="450" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2616" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Picture11.png 800w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Picture11-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Picture11-768x432.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px" /> 
▷ Scan the QR code above to view the full replay of the forum.
Support for science communication has always been a vital mission of the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute. In the future, the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute will continue the &#8220;Brain and Food Forum&#8221; format in collaboration with the Chinese Neuroscience Society, launching other diverse interdisciplinary exchanges such as &#8220;Brain and Sports&#8221; and &#8220;Brain and Visual Arts.&#8221; We hope to gather wisdom and resources from different fields to address complex issues in neuroscience research and deepen public understanding of the brain. We look forward to your participation!
<div/>

[:en]<div style="line-height: 1.5;">

On September 6, 2024, the delightful aromas of food wafted from the Sinan Mansion in Shanghai, like an invisible web quietly spreading and attracting numerous visitors to embark on a wonderful experience of "Brain and Food."

According to Professor Mao Ying, the initiator of the event, Dean of Huashan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University and Director of the Clinical Translational Research Center of Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute, this interdisciplinary science communication event is the first session of the "Brain Exploration" series, co-hosted by the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI) and the Chinese Neuroscience Society. Several neuroscientists were invited to join renowned food critics in engaging the public through academic presentations, scientific experiments, and storytelling, sharing knowledge about how food influences cognition, emotions, and behavior.
&nbsp;
<h2>1. Four Olfactory Truths Beyond Cognition</h2>

The book The Science of Tasting mentions five basic taste types: sour, sweet, bitter, salty, and umami. However, our rich food experiences result from the combined effects of multiple senses, including smell, taste, and touch, with olfaction playing a particularly crucial role. As Researcher Zhou Wen from the Institute of Psychology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences stated during the forum:

“Most perceptions of food flavors come from olfaction rather than taste.”

In fact, there are two main pathways for perceiving odors—the anterior nasal pathway and the posterior nasal pathway. The anterior pathway refers to odor molecules emitted by food entering through the nostrils and reaching the olfactory epithelium. Various olfactory receptors distributed on the olfactory epithelium convert chemical signals into electrical signals, which are then sent to the olfactory bulb, allowing us to smell the food’s aroma. The posterior pathway occurs during chewing; as food is heated in the mouth and mixed with saliva, its odor molecules enter the nasal cavity during exhalation, activating olfactory receptors in the same area and transmitting information to the olfactory bulb.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food1.png" alt="" width="836" height="470" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2611" />
▷ Anterior and posterior nasal pathways for odor perception

“Odors do not exist as physical entities; they are encoded by neural networks in the brain.”

Odors are not inherently contained within the chemical molecules themselves; rather, they are processed by olfactory neurons in the brain to form a dynamic spatiotemporal pattern. Different odor molecules activate different glomeruli at various locations in the olfactory bulb, and the order of activation relates to the components and dynamic characteristics of the odor. Therefore, individual perceptions of odors include a high sensitivity to temporal information and responses to continuous changes.

In this way, our olfactory system acts like a "chemical analyst," accurately analyzing the chemical composition of the environment and its dynamic changes. Olfactory information begins in the olfactory bulb and spreads via the olfactory tract to multiple key brain regions in the limbic system, such as the piriform cortex, amygdala (emotion center), and entorhinal cortex (brain GPS), resulting in the sensation of smell.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food2.png" alt="" width="775" height="436" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2610" />
▷ Spatiotemporal Coding of Olfactory Perception

“Humans are also adept at using odors for localization, with abilities rivaling those of dogs, provided they get low enough.”

Since olfactory perception primarily involves ipsilateral conduction, the brain can accurately identify odors sampled from different spatial areas by the left and right nostrils. With two nostrils, humans theoretically possess the ability to perceive direction through smell to facilitate localization. A study on olfactory localization involving humans and dogs showed that [1], with appropriate training, blindfolded humans can effectively navigate using smell and continuously adjust their route, ultimately tracking down a target—chocolate.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food3.png" alt="" width="784" height="441" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2609" />
▷ Olfactory Localization Experiment

Zhou Wen explained that her laboratory conducted a study on determining direction based on optic flow [2], which also found that when visual cues are insufficient to distinguish direction, our judgment of the direction of movement is influenced by the concentration of odors in the nostrils. The brain tends to perceive movement toward the side with the higher concentration. This implies that the brain can synthesize analysis based on odor concentration and provide directional clues. It’s no wonder people often find themselves wandering into the bakery section while shopping.

“Compared to other senses, olfaction more readily evokes memories and emotions.”

Odors can elicit rich emotional experiences and vivid memory fragments, often imbued with strong spatiotemporal information; specific smells can trigger unique memories of particular people or places. For example, the scent of braised pork may remind one of their mother and scenes from childhood when she was busy in the kitchen; a whiff of flowers may evoke memories of learning to ride a bike with a grandmother...

These spatiotemporal memories carried by smells benefit from the hippocampus's [3] important role in memory formation, particularly in autobiographical recollection (personal past experiences). The transmission of olfactory signals and memory often impacts structures such as the amygdala and hippocampus, further linking emotions, memories, and spatiotemporal perception.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food4.png" alt="" width="878" height="494" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2615" />
▷ Functional Connectivity of the Hippocampus and Olfactory System

Thus, losing the sense of smell means not only losing a part of sensory experience but also severing a rich emotional world associated with olfactory memories. If prolonged loss of smell occurs due to viral infections or neurodegenerative diseases, it may even affect an individual’s emotional state. To restore olfactory function, it is crucial to reestablish connections between smells and existing memories in the brain. For instance, when seeing soy sauce, one should strive to recall its scent, thereby strengthening neural connections and aiding olfactory recovery.

Olfaction is vital for most people, influencing not only daily life quality but also playing a key role in emotional connections and social interactions.
&nbsp;
<h2>2. The "Manipulated" Eating Behavior</h2>

Olfaction helps humans locate food, but actual eating behavior is influenced by multiple internal and external factors, such as physiological state, the allure of food, and individual anxiety levels.

“CRHLHA neurons play a crucial role during eating.”

Researcher Xu Huatai from the Lingang Laboratory introduced a type of neuron in the lateral hypothalamus of mammals called corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons (CRHLHA neurons). These neurons become active during eating, and their firing activity can be observed and recorded in the laboratory. Seeing or smelling food can also stimulate the activation of CRHLHA neurons; during hunger, the activity level of CRHLHA neurons is higher than when satiated, reflecting dynamic changes in appetite.[4]

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food5.png" alt="" width="830" height="467" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2614" />
▷ Activity Levels of CRHLHA Neurons Reflect Appetite Changes

“Even when full, the deliciousness of food can entice further eating.”

Generally, after eating, our attraction to food decreases significantly. However, as the saying goes, “the stomach for meals and the stomach for dessert are never the same.” Even when satiated, CRHLHA neurons can become active again when faced with tempting chocolates or desserts, as if saying, “Just a little more.” Even the brain cannot resist the “pure pleasure” that delicious food brings.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food6.png" alt="" width="937" height="527" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2613" />
▷ CRHLHA Neurons Activate in Response to Preferred Food Signals When Satiated

“Eating and anxiety behaviors share a common neural circuitry.”

In nature, animals tend to reduce their eating frequency, activity level, and exploratory behavior under stressful conditions, demonstrating what is referred to as “eating anxiety.” In experimental studies, researcher Xu Huatai manipulated the activity of CRHLHA neurons in mice, achieving artificial control over their eating behavior and altering their perception of safety and anxiety levels.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food7.png" alt="" width="822" height="462" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2612" />
▷ Eating and Safety Perception

By using optogenetic technology, researchers can increase or decrease the activity of CRHLHA neurons, leading to corresponding eating or refusal behaviors in the manipulated mice. In the experiments, artificially lowering the activity of CRHLHA neurons significantly reduced the eating behavior of hungry mice, even in the presence of enticing chocolates, which led to a decreased desire to eat. Conversely, artificially activating CRHLHA neurons caused the mice to "override their instincts," increasing eating behavior and displaying risk-taking exploratory behavior.

Xu Huatai believes, “Current research results reveal the shared neural basis of eating and anxiety behaviors. However, changes in eating behavior under anxiety in humans are much more complex than in mice. On one hand, people rarely need to consider personal safety when eating in social settings; on the other hand, individuals react differently to anxiety, which can lead to extremes such as binge eating or anorexia.”
&nbsp;
<h2>3. “Out of Control” Eating Motivation</h2>

Binge eating and anorexia are two manifestations of "out-of-control" eating motivation. Professor Zhou Yudong, Vice Dean of the School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine at Zhejiang University, explains that "eating behavior is primarily regulated by the reward center in the hypothalamus of the brain."

“As a natural reward, food—similar to money, games, drugs, and maternal love—can enhance eating behavior through reinforcement.”

What constitutes "delicious food"? While foodies might offer poetic answers, for the brain, the answer may be quite straightforward: “high-energy” foods. Altering the composition of fats, proteins, or carbohydrates in food can effectively influence appetite. High-fat foods, in particular, are more likely to stimulate appetite compared to proteins and carbohydrates. Even in high-stress environments, high-fat foods can persistently drive foraging behavior, a phenomenon known as "compulsive eating" or "uncontrolled eating."

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food8.png" alt="" width="880" height="495" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2619" />
▷ Reward-driven Uncontrolled Eating Induced by Food

What changes occur in the brain that control eating motivation behind compulsive eating behaviors? Professor Zhou’s team discovered that,

“The anteroventral periventricular nucleus (aPVT) plays a key role in compulsive eating behaviors and approach-avoidance conflicts.”

In animal experiments, mice subjected to high-fat diets exhibited behaviors reminiscent of compulsive eating, such as overcoming fears of open spaces and electric shocks to forage boldly. Notably, activating aPVT neurons in normally fed mice resulted in behaviors similar to those of high-fat diet mice.[5]

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food9.png" alt="" width="926" height="521" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2618" />
▷ aPVT: A New Food Reward Center

“The underlying mechanism of compulsive eating involves metabolic inflammation in the brain caused by excessive nutrient intake.”

Further research revealed that lipid molecules from high-fat food intake trigger inflammation in the aPVT region, promoting increased appetite and driving compulsive eating behaviors. This finding highlights the intricate connections between the nervous system, endocrine system, and immune system. Excessive energy intake leads to energy stress, resulting in central and peripheral metabolic inflammation. This may affect immune and metabolic functions, increasing the risk of metabolic diseases, neurodegenerative disorders (such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's), cardiovascular diseases, and cancers.

Therefore, from a neuroscientific perspective, Professor Zhou reminds us, "There is a close relationship between food choices and disease, emphasizing the need to maintain a balanced diet for both physical and brain health."

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/food10.png" alt="" width="779" height="438" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2617" />
▷ High-fat diet induces inflammation in the aPVT brain region and promotes compulsive eating behavior

From the wondrous role of olfaction to the complex regulation of eating behavior and the phenomenon of "out-of-control" eating motivation, scientists at the "Brain and Food Forum" used vivid experiments and rigorous data to reveal the intricate neuroscience behind delicious food to both online and offline audiences. Looking ahead, as research in brain science continues to deepen, we anticipate uncovering more secrets of the interaction between food and the brain. This will enhance our understanding of human eating behavior and provide new ideas and methods for preventing and treating diet-related diseases.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Picture11.png" alt="" width="800" height="450" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2616" />
▷ Scan the QR code above to view the full replay of the forum.

Support for science communication has always been a vital mission of the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute. In the future, the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute will continue the "Brain and Food Forum" format in collaboration with the Chinese Neuroscience Society, launching other diverse interdisciplinary exchanges such as "Brain and Sports" and "Brain and Visual Arts." We hope to gather wisdom and resources from different fields to address complex issues in neuroscience research and deepen public understanding of the brain. We look forward to your participation!
<div/>
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[:en]<div style="line-height: 1.5;">The human brain operates with remarkably low energy consumption while performing vast computational processes. Understanding this requires a deep comprehension of the synaptic connections, spatial structures, and static networks of neural circuits, along with the dynamic cognitive processes built upon them. These tasks far exceed the traditional scope of brain region functionality studies. Connectomics research aims to achieve this by precisely mapping how each cell connects with others.
With advancements in scientific research, especially the rapid improvements in computational and data processing capabilities, research methods for the nervous system are also evolving. In this context, technology giants like Google have begun investing in this field, applying advanced technologies to neuroscience research, thereby driving the rapid development of connectomics. Scientists have now mapped detailed connectomes of various organisms' brains, rapidly changing our understanding of brain functioning.
Ten years ago, Google started focusing on AI innovations and collaborating with large datasets, thereby establishing a connectomics team. In reconstructing brain structures, they generated massive amounts of data. To effectively handle this data, the Google team developed the flood-filling networks (FFN) model to replace the traditional manual method of annotating cells in images [1]. These networks can automatically reconstruct neurons through tissue layers. Based on this, Google developed the SegCLR algorithm to automatically identify different parts and cell types within these networks [2]. The Google connectomics team also created TensorStore [3], an open-source C++ and Python software library for storing and managing large multidimensional datasets. This tool has achieved functionality far beyond connectomics and is now widely used at Google and in the broader machine learning community.
In 2018, Google partnered with the Max Planck Institute for Neurobiology in Germany to develop a deep learning-based system that can automatically map brain neurons [1]. They reconstructed the scanned images of one million cubic micrometers of a zebra finch brain.

<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2441" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture1-2.png" alt="" width="999" height="508" />

▷ Illustration of segmenting each neuron in a small part of the zebra finch brain using FFN. Source: google.

In 2019, Google collaborated with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and the University of Cambridge, using the FFN model and TPU chips to slice a fruit fly brain into thousands of 40-nanometer ultra-thin sections. They used a transmission electron microscope to generate images of each slice, producing over 40 trillion pixels of fruit fly brain images. These 2D images were then aligned to reconstruct a complete 3D image of the fruit fly brain [4]. In 2020, Google released the fruit fly hemibrain connectome, which included images covering 25,000 neurons and revealed their synaptic connections, accounting for about one-third of the fruit fly brain by volume [5].

<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2440" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture2-2-1024x768.png" alt="" width="1024" height="768" />

▷ Fruit fly hemibrain connectome.

Recently, Google collaborated with the Lichtman Laboratory at Harvard University to publish an article in Science titled "A petavoxel fragment of human cerebral cortex reconstructed at nanoscale resolution."

<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2439" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture3-2.png" alt="" width="951" height="429" />

▷ Shapson-Coe, Alexander, et al. "A petavoxel fragment of human cerebral cortex reconstructed at nanoscale resolution." Science 384.6696 (2024): eadk4858.

This study released the latest H01 dataset, a 1.4 PB rendered image of a small sample of human brain tissue. The H01 sample was imaged at a resolution of 4nm using serial section electron microscopy and then reconstructed and annotated through automated computational techniques, ultimately revealing the preliminary structure of the human cerebral cortex. The H01 dataset is not only the largest sample of its kind imaged and reconstructed to this extent in any organism, but it is also the first large-scale sample to study the synaptic connectivity of the human cerebral cortex, spanning multiple cell types across all cortical layers.

&nbsp;

<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2438" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture4-2.png" alt="" width="602" height="615" />

▷ Figure 1: The H01 dataset of the human cerebral cortex.

The research team encountered many obstacles in creating this image. One major issue was finding suitable brain tissue samples. Since the human brain begins to degrade rapidly after death, postmortem brain tissue is often unsuitable for research. Therefore, the team chose a tissue sample taken during brain surgery from an epilepsy patient, aiming to help control their seizures. Additionally, identifying the structure of neural circuits at the synaptic level requires higher resolution electron microscopy. Serial EM, with its automation and rapid imaging capabilities, can image cubic millimeter volumes of tissue at nanoscale resolution, making it a powerful tool for reconstructing the fine neural circuits of the human brain.

The outcomes of this work primarily include the following four aspects:

&nbsp;
<h2>1.Reconstruction of Human Brain Samples and Neuron Connectivity</h2>
The human brain sample used in this study was taken from the left anterior temporal lobe of an epilepsy patient during surgery. The sample was about the size of half a grain of rice. After fixation, staining, and embedding, the sample was sectioned using an automatic tape-collecting ultramicrotome (ATUM), producing 5,019 tissue sections with an average thickness of 33.9 nm, totaling 0.170 mm in thickness. These sections were then placed on silicon wafers and imaged under a custom-built 61-beam parallel scanning electron microscope at a resolution of 4x4 nm², rapidly capturing images with a total imaging volume of 1.05 mm³. The raw data size of each section reached up to 350 terabytes, and the overall dataset size reached 1.4 petabytes.

The subsequent computational challenge was to analyze such a massive dataset. The researchers successfully addressed this issue using artificial intelligence algorithms. The team computationally stitched and aligned this data to generate a single 3D volume. Despite the overall high quality of the data, these alignment channels needed to be robust to handle challenges such as imaging artifacts, missing sections, variations in microscope parameters, and physical stretching and compression of the tissue. Once aligned, a multi-scale FFN (flood-filling network) algorithm, utilizing thousands of Google Cloud TPUs, was applied to generate 3D segmentations of each individual cell in the tissue. FFN is the first automated segmentation technique capable of producing sufficiently accurate reconstructions. Additionally, other machine learning pipelines were used to identify and annotate 130 million synapses, dividing each 3D segment into different "subregions" (e.g., axons, dendrites, or cell bodies) and identifying other structures of interest, such as myelin and cilia.

However, the results of automated reconstruction were not perfect. Given the massive amount of neuronal structural data, it was impractical for individual lab members to manually proofread the entire dataset. Therefore, researchers from Princeton University and the Allen Institute developed an online proofreading platform called CAVE (Connectome Annotation and Versioning Engine), as an extension of Neuroglancer. This platform allows users to proofread and update annotated data to improve the dataset as part of their research. Researchers can select specific neurons or their connections and manually refine and annotate their reconstructions. CAVE is already used for smaller datasets, including the fly connectome.

For this project, researchers updated the algorithms to handle such large datasets. The interface permits proofreading, which is a crucial final step in completing the connectome reconstruction. Anyone can apply to become a proofreader, and proofreaders can download data related to the cells they are working on for subsequent analysis. Additionally, VAST (Volume Annotation and Segmentation Tool) is available as a general free software for viewing, segmenting, and annotating large datasets. For diversified analysis, researchers also provided various databases allowing users to query cell and synapse data specifically. To support complex query conditions, they developed a standalone program called CREST (Connectome Reconstruction and Exploration Simple Tool), which identifies and explores cell connections based on many cell characteristics.

<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2437" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture5-2.png" alt="" width="747" height="996" />▷ Source: Viren Jain
<h2>2. Composition of Cells and Synapses in the Human Cerebral Cortex</h2>
Through identification and quantitative analysis of all nucleated cells in the sample, 49,080 neurons and glial cells, along with 8,100 vascular-related cells, were identified. The number of glial cells (32,315) was about twice that of neurons (16,087). These neurons were mainly divided into spiny (65.5%), non-spiny, and non-pyramidal types. The neuronal density in the human cerebral cortex is about 16,000/mm³, which is approximately one-third lower than previously estimated by optical microscopy in the human temporal cortex and nearly ten times lower than the density in the mouse associative cortex.

Based on the size and distribution density of the cell bodies, the researchers divided the sample into six cortical layers and white matter. The distribution of glial cells varied among these layers. Notably, protoplasmic astrocytes were densely distributed from layers 2 to 6. However, in the shallower part of layer 1, they tended to be more mixed, with higher density and smaller size. Fibrous astrocytes in the white matter were more elongated than those occupying the cortex. Two other types of glial cells, microglia and oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), had nearly uniform density across all layers. Another type of glial cell, oligodendrocytes (n=20,139), exhibited a gradient distribution, with the lowest density in the upper layers and the highest density in the white matter, likely related to their role in myelination. Microglia, OPCs, and oligodendrocytes all showed an affinity for blood vessels. A large number of myelinated axons were radially distributed between the white matter and the superficial cortical layers, horizontally distributed on two orthogonal axes. The reconstructed blood vessels did not show layer-specific distribution.

Synapses are the bridges of the neural network. The human brain has 86 billion neurons, and synapses allow the transmission of electrical signals from one neuron to the next. To identify synaptic sites, the researchers trained a classifier based on the U-Net architecture to label three categories: background, presynaptic, and postsynaptic. They also trained a binary ResNet-50 classifier to categorize each identified synapse as excitatory or inhibitory based on its electron microscopy appearance, postsynaptic structure type, and presynaptic neuron type (if known).

In the reconstructed human brain tissue, approximately 102.5 million (67.1%) synapses were identified as excitatory, and about 50.3 million (32.9%) as inhibitory (Fig.2). Further analysis showed that most of these synapses were located on dendrites (99.4%), with only a small portion on axon initial segments (0.2%) or cell bodies (0.4%). This data is accessible on the Neuroglancer platform. By analyzing the reconstructed synapses, the researchers found that excitatory synapses were mainly distributed in layers 1 and 3, while inhibitory synapses were predominantly found in layer 1. Additionally, the ratio of excitatory to inhibitory inputs received by pyramidal neurons and interneurons varied slightly across layers, reflecting the complex regulatory mechanisms of neural networks.

<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2438" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture4-2.png" alt="" width="602" height="615" />

▷ Figure 2: Distribution of cells and synapses in the human cerebral cortex and white matter.
<h2>3.Morphological Subtypes of Layer 6 Triangular Neurons</h2>
The deeper layers of the cerebral cortex are less understood than the superficial layers due to the complexity and diversity of cell types present. In this study, the researchers focused on spiny neurons in the deep cortical layers, particularly triangular neurons, which are not well understood in primates. In the reconstructed human brain tissue, triangular neurons were predominantly located in layers 5 and 6 (n = 876), accounting for about one-third of the spiny neurons. These cells are characterized by their large basal dendrites extending from the soma in various directions, forming a notable directional distribution, thus referred to as "compass neurons."

The study further distinguished two types of neurons based on the direction of their basal dendrites: one type with large basal dendrites extending anteriorly and another with large basal dendrites extending posteriorly at a mirror-symmetric angle. These two groups of cells formed a mirror-symmetric distribution in the cerebral white matter (Fig.3). Additionally, the direction of the basal dendrites exhibited a bimodal distribution, with most cells extending either significantly forward or markedly backward, while others were more tangentially oriented. The distribution of these basal dendrites corresponded to the functional regions of the cerebral cortex and might be related to the principal axis of the myelinated axons in the subjacent white matter. These neurons tended to cluster with nearest neighbor cells having the same orientation, suggesting that this spatial distribution is not random. The statistical correlation of these mirror-symmetric neurons indicates that such cell clustering might have some underlying, yet unclear, functional significance.

&nbsp;

<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2435" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture7-1-1024x546.png" alt="" width="1024" height="546" />

▷ Figure 3: Two mirror-symmetric subgroups of triangular neurons in the deep layers of the human cerebral cortex.
<h2>4.Multiple Synaptic Connections</h2>
Previous research has shown that axons in the rodent cerebral cortex occasionally form multiple synaptic connections on the same postsynaptic cell. To investigate whether the same phenomenon occurs in the human cerebral cortex, researchers used CREST to systematically identify strong connections in reconstructed human brain tissue. The results indicated that, in the human cerebral cortex, single axons occasionally establish multiple synapses on the same postsynaptic cell. Researchers systematically discovered this phenomenon in both excitatory and inhibitory axons. Although such strong connections are rare, they are extremely potent, with over 50 individual synaptic connections possible between pairs of neurons. Typically, 96.5% of axon-target cell contacts have only one synapse, while 0.092% of axon connections may have four or more synapses.

Furthermore, analysis of 2,743 neurons revealed that 39% of neurons had at least one dendritic input with seven or more synapses, indicating that strong axonal inputs are a common feature of human brain neurons. Interestingly, these multiple synaptic connections are often formed by axons maintaining close contact with dendrites over long distances (Fig.4).

The authors also explored whether the number of synapses established by an axon on target cells exceeded the expectations of a random model. The results showed that the incidence of strong connections observed was significantly higher than the model's predictions (Fig.4). Although the phenomenon of single axons establishing multiple synapses on the same postsynaptic cell is uncommon in the human cerebral cortex, these rare, strong connections might be an important component of complex neuron-to-neuron communication.

<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2434" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture8-1-1024x871.png" alt="" width="1024" height="871" />

▷ Figure 4: Exceptionally strong synaptic connections in the human cerebral cortex.

Using nanoscale resolution to explore the six-layer structure of the human cortex, researchers revealed details of brain tissue at the cellular to subcellular level, investigating the complex relationships among neurons, synapses, glia, and blood vessels. Additionally, the authors provided several software tools, such as the browser-based Neuroglancer and its derivatives CREST and CAVE, as well as VAST, greatly facilitating data visualization and annotation.

However, the study has certain limitations. Fresh samples from healthy individuals are unlikely to be obtained through this neurosurgical approach. Although the patient's temporal lobe did not show substantial pathological changes under light microscopy, long-term epilepsy or its drug treatment may have subtle effects on cortical tissue connectivity or structure.

Some unusual features were observed in this tissue, including some very large spines, axon varicosities filled with unusual substances, and a few axons forming extensive "axon helices." It is currently unclear whether these rare structures are related to the disease or its treatment or are common features of the human brain. Comparing samples obtained from individuals with different underlying conditions will help us better understand these phenomena. Moreover, since the structure of the human cerebral cortex partly depends on past experiences, there is structural variability among individuals, but the extent of this variability is still unknown.

Considering the greater variability in human experience, behavior, and genetics, and the fact that humans and other vertebrates have many identified neuron categories rather than single identified neuron types, comparing neural circuits among human brains may be more challenging.

</div>[:]

Mapping the Largest Fragment of the Human Brain

[:en]Mapping the Largest Fragment of the Human Brain[:]

Commemorating Wittgenstein: How Does He Influence the Future of Large Language Models?

[:en]Commemorating Wittgenstein: How Does He Influence the Future of Large Language Models?[:]

&nbsp;


	&nbsp;


	Cognitive science traditionally categorizes human behaviors and those of algorithm-driven agents into two types: one is goal-driven, like an explorer with a map who knows where they are headed; the other follows habits, like a student who consistently takes the same route to school. It has been generally accepted among researchers that these two types of behavior are governed by distinct neural mechanisms. However, a recent study published in Nature Communications proposes that both types of behavior can be unified under the same theoretical framework: variational Bayesian theory. <img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2396" height="302" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture1.png" width="789" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture1.png 789w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture1-300x115.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture1-768x294.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 789px) 100vw, 789px" /> ▷ Han, D., Doya, K., Li, D. et al. Synergizing habits and goals with variational Bayes. Nat Commun 15, 4461 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-48577-7


	&nbsp;

<h2 style="line-height: 1.5;">
	1. Question: The Same Domain, the Same Essence 
</h2>

	In scientific research, whether studying animals, humans, or machine learning algorithms, we often encounter the question: When faced with a new environment or challenge, should we rely on instincts and habits, or should we try to learn new methods? This question may seem to span various fields, but in reality, these fields all revolve around a central issue: How to strike the optimal balance between rapid adaptation and maintaining flexibility.


	For example, when animals face environmental changes, they may instinctively react by seeking shelter or searching for food&mdash;behaviors that may be innate or learned. Similarly, in decision-making, people sometimes rely on intuition (what psychologist Daniel Kahneman calls &quot;System 1&quot;), while other times they engage in more careful deliberation (&quot;System 2&quot;). In machine learning, some algorithms are &quot;model-free,&quot; meaning they learn from experience without predefined rules, while others are &quot;model-based,&quot; relying on explicit rules and models. <img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2397" height="359" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture2.png" width="691" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture2.png 691w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture2-300x156.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 691px) 100vw, 691px" /> ▷ The characteristics of habitual behaviors (e.g., snacking while focused on work) and goal-directed behaviors (e.g., planning a diet meal).


	These seemingly different situations are, in fact, quite similar: whether in biological or artificial systems, the key challenge is to balance rapid adaptation with flexibility in handling new situations.


	For instance, bacteria quickly adapt to their environment through chemotaxis (the instinct to move toward nutrient-rich areas). When faced with an environment without pre-established rules, an intelligent agent may behave like a student immersed in solving problems, quickly reaching the goal. However, more complex organisms or algorithms may require more flexible strategies to tackle more sophisticated challenges.


	To explain the process of goal-directed learning, neuroscientists have proposed the theoretical framework of active inference. This framework posits that the brain is constantly trying to minimize uncertainty and unexpected outcomes when predicting the environment by directing the body to interact with it. The core concept of this theory, &quot;free energy,&quot; measures the difference between the probability of sensory inputs and the expected sensory inputs. The process of active inference is essentially the process of minimizing free energy.


	While &quot;active inference&quot; provides insight into goal-directed learning, it remains a hypothesis that has yet to be fully validated in the scientific community. There is still insufficient empirical evidence to support the neural mechanisms behind it. For instance, active inference explains goal-directed behaviors as a process of minimizing the gap between goals and reality. However, it falls short in explaining habit-based behaviors that do not require conscious intervention or rely on external feedback.


	Recent studies have attempted to demonstrate how these seemingly opposing behavioral modes, goal-directed and habit-driven, can work together within a unified theoretical framework, enabling organisms to efficiently and flexibly adapt to their environment.


	&nbsp;

<h2 style="line-height: 1.5;">
	2. Discovery: Predictive Coding and Complexity Reduction&mdash;The Brain&#39;s Ongoing Bayesian Inference 
</h2>

	To better understand this new framework, we can liken the brain to a chef constantly experimenting with new dishes. When a chef adjusts his menu, is he making the dishes more appealing to customers or simply cooking out of habit? In reality, he is doing both. On the one hand, he reduces the gap between his culinary creations and the customers&#39; tastes. On the other hand, he continuously updates and simplifies the predictive model of changing customer preferences&mdash;his expectations of their tastes.


	This process can be illustrated with a simple example. A limited menu with only a few dishes may lack the flexibility to satisfy all customers&#39; needs. In contrast, a complex menu that can be freely adjusted based on customer feedback might better accommodate different tastes, but it could become too complicated to manage, increasing costs or leading to inconsistent flavors.


	Scientists have described this process in mathematical terms, defining &quot;latent intentions&quot; to expand the concept of free energy. In this context, free energy includes not only the concept from active inference but also the agent&#39;s behavioral tendencies and predictions about observations. The agent&#39;s learning behavior can be seen as a continuous updating process (Markov chain) aimed at minimizing the value of Zt. This value comprises prediction error (the discrepancy with reality) and KL divergence (the complexity of the model).


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2398" height="124" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture3.png" width="605" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture3.png 605w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture3-300x61.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 605px) 100vw, 605px" />


	British cognitive scientist Andy Clark pointed out that the brain is a powerful prediction machine, constantly forecasting upcoming sensory inputs and adjusting these predictions based on actual inputs. In this process, the prediction error corresponds to the first term in the aforementioned formula. The second term, KL divergence, measures the difference in probability density between predictions before and after an action, reflecting the complexity of the predictive model. In habit-driven learning, whether an action is taken or not does not affect the prediction, making this term zero, meaning no model exists. Thus, KL divergence, which represents model complexity, turns the binary distinction between model-free and model-based approaches into a continuous spectrum.


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2399" height="317" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture4.png" width="605" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture4.png 605w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture4-300x157.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 605px) 100vw, 605px" />


	▷ a) Schematic of integrating habits and goal frameworks. b) Structure of the framework during training. c) Structure of the framework during behavioral processes.


	In this framework, when faced with a new goal, early learning resembles a model-based system, similar to a chef who, upon opening his restaurant, tries to optimize his predictions of new customers&#39; tastes. Once this predictive model has been sufficiently refined through continuous training, it may shift toward a more habit-driven approach, where the chef continually perfects his signature dishes.


	&nbsp;

<h2 style="line-height: 1.5;">
	3. Significance: Enabling AI to Perform Zero-Shot Learning 
</h2>

	One significant advantage of human intelligence is the ability to solve various tasks in entirely new environments without relying on prior examples. For instance, when a painter is asked to depict a mythical creature like a qilin, he or she only needs to know that the qilin is a symbol of good fortune. However, an AI would require specific prompts, such as: &quot;Depict a qilin from ancient Chinese mythology, with a dragon&#39;s head, deer antlers, lion&#39;s eyes, tiger&#39;s back, bear&#39;s waist, snake&#39;s scales, horse&#39;s hooves, and an ox&#39;s tail, exuding an overall aura of majesty and sanctity, with gold and red as the primary colors, against a backdrop of swirling clouds, symbolizing good fortune, peace, and imperial power.&quot;


	The first painter to depict a qilin did so through zero-shot learning after acquiring sufficient experience in painting; however, zero-shot learning remains a challenging task for current AI systems. This is precisely the issue that this framework aims to address.


	When the environment changes, an agent built using the integrated framework proposed in this paper can spontaneously switch from habit-based model-free learning to model-based learning. This allows the agent to adapt to the new environmental conditions. In their experiments, researchers used a T-maze to test the adaptability of these agents. In this maze, the agent must decide which direction to take based on rewards on either side, learning strategies to maximize rewards.


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2400" height="190" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture5.png" width="500" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture5.png 500w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture5-300x114.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px" /> ▷ T-maze and the three stages of the agent in response to environmental changes.


	In a habit-based system, the agent might continue following the previously rewarded path, even if the reward has changed. However, goal-directed agents face a different challenge. For example, if the initial reward on the left side of the maze is 100 times greater than on the right, the agent might need to try the left side a hundred times before updating the model and attempting the right side (depending on the specific agent model). This is undoubtedly an inefficient approach; in the real world, an organism displaying such behavior would likely be eliminated by natural selection. The framework proposed in this paper integrates goal-driven and habit-driven approaches, allowing the agent to balance flexibility and speed. Initially, it adapts to the environment by choosing the right side; when the environment changes (the left reward disappears), it readjusts to choose the left side.


	The simple T-maze experiment shows that the new framework aligns with Yann LeCun&#39;s concept of the world model. LeCun emphasizes that a world model has a dual role of planning for the future and estimating missing observations, and it should be an energy-based model. In goal-directed behavior, this framework uses the current state, goal, and intended actions as inputs, and outputs an energy value to describe their &quot;consistency.&quot; It can be said that the agent&#39;s decision-making in the T-maze builds upon and relies on the world model envisioned by LeCun.


	There is a long road ahead from the simple T-maze to highly complex large language models. However, based on the theoretical framework described in this paper, we can observe some important similarities. For example, in training language models, we typically predict based on existing vocabulary, similar to scenarios without specific goals set during the training phase. The flexibility of goal-directed planning in this framework comes from its ability to break down any future goal into a series of sequential steps, predicting only the next observation. This method minimizes the discrepancy between goal-directed intentions and prior distributions, thereby compressing the search space and making the search process more efficient. This approach is also suitable for large models.


	Additionally, based on the KL divergence term in the framework, we can understand the hierarchical structure in predictive coding, where a hierarchical information processing method is used to reduce model complexity. Predictive coding theory also suggests that the brain learns to recognize patterns by filtering out information that can be predicted through natural world patterns, thereby reducing unnecessary data. This information processing strategy echoes the information bottleneck theory, showing how cognitive processes can be optimized by using lower-dimensional representations.


	Finally, this theoretical framework not only enhances our understanding of healthy brain function but also provides new perspectives for understanding and treating neurological disorders. For example, patients with Parkinson&#39;s disease often struggle with goal-directed planning abilities and rely more on habitual behaviors. This may be due to high uncertainty within goal-directed intentions. Research on how medical interventions or deep brain stimulation (altering internal states) and sensory stimulation (altering brain input) can reduce this uncertainty may provide methods to improve motor control in Parkinson&#39;s patients.


	Moreover, research on autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can also benefit from this theoretical framework. Individuals with autism often exhibit repetitive behaviors, which may be related to an overemphasis on model complexity in predictive coding, affecting cognitive behavioral flexibility when adapting to changing environments. Introducing some randomness to increase behavioral diversity could be a potential intervention strategy.


	&nbsp;


	&nbsp;

[:en]
	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;



	Cognitive science traditionally categorizes human behaviors and those of algorithm-driven agents into two types: one is goal-driven, like an explorer with a map who knows where they are headed; the other follows habits, like a student who consistently takes the same route to school. It has been generally accepted among researchers that these two types of behavior are governed by distinct neural mechanisms. However, a recent study published in Nature Communications proposes that both types of behavior can be unified under the same theoretical framework: variational Bayesian theory. <img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2396" height="302" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture1.png" width="789" /> ▷ Han, D., Doya, K., Li, D. et al. Synergizing habits and goals with variational Bayes. Nat Commun 15, 4461 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-48577-7



	&nbsp;


<h2 style="line-height: 1.5;">
	1. Question: The Same Domain, the Same Essence
</h2>


	In scientific research, whether studying animals, humans, or machine learning algorithms, we often encounter the question: When faced with a new environment or challenge, should we rely on instincts and habits, or should we try to learn new methods? This question may seem to span various fields, but in reality, these fields all revolve around a central issue: How to strike the optimal balance between rapid adaptation and maintaining flexibility.



	For example, when animals face environmental changes, they may instinctively react by seeking shelter or searching for food&mdash;behaviors that may be innate or learned. Similarly, in decision-making, people sometimes rely on intuition (what psychologist Daniel Kahneman calls &quot;System 1&quot;), while other times they engage in more careful deliberation (&quot;System 2&quot;). In machine learning, some algorithms are &quot;model-free,&quot; meaning they learn from experience without predefined rules, while others are &quot;model-based,&quot; relying on explicit rules and models. <img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2397" height="359" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture2.png" width="691" /> ▷ The characteristics of habitual behaviors (e.g., snacking while focused on work) and goal-directed behaviors (e.g., planning a diet meal).



	These seemingly different situations are, in fact, quite similar: whether in biological or artificial systems, the key challenge is to balance rapid adaptation with flexibility in handling new situations.



	For instance, bacteria quickly adapt to their environment through chemotaxis (the instinct to move toward nutrient-rich areas). When faced with an environment without pre-established rules, an intelligent agent may behave like a student immersed in solving problems, quickly reaching the goal. However, more complex organisms or algorithms may require more flexible strategies to tackle more sophisticated challenges.



	To explain the process of goal-directed learning, neuroscientists have proposed the theoretical framework of active inference. This framework posits that the brain is constantly trying to minimize uncertainty and unexpected outcomes when predicting the environment by directing the body to interact with it. The core concept of this theory, &quot;free energy,&quot; measures the difference between the probability of sensory inputs and the expected sensory inputs. The process of active inference is essentially the process of minimizing free energy.



	While &quot;active inference&quot; provides insight into goal-directed learning, it remains a hypothesis that has yet to be fully validated in the scientific community. There is still insufficient empirical evidence to support the neural mechanisms behind it. For instance, active inference explains goal-directed behaviors as a process of minimizing the gap between goals and reality. However, it falls short in explaining habit-based behaviors that do not require conscious intervention or rely on external feedback.



	Recent studies have attempted to demonstrate how these seemingly opposing behavioral modes, goal-directed and habit-driven, can work together within a unified theoretical framework, enabling organisms to efficiently and flexibly adapt to their environment.



	&nbsp;


<h2 style="line-height: 1.5;">
	2. Discovery: Predictive Coding and Complexity Reduction&mdash;The Brain&#39;s Ongoing Bayesian Inference
</h2>


	To better understand this new framework, we can liken the brain to a chef constantly experimenting with new dishes. When a chef adjusts his menu, is he making the dishes more appealing to customers or simply cooking out of habit? In reality, he is doing both. On the one hand, he reduces the gap between his culinary creations and the customers&#39; tastes. On the other hand, he continuously updates and simplifies the predictive model of changing customer preferences&mdash;his expectations of their tastes.



	This process can be illustrated with a simple example. A limited menu with only a few dishes may lack the flexibility to satisfy all customers&#39; needs. In contrast, a complex menu that can be freely adjusted based on customer feedback might better accommodate different tastes, but it could become too complicated to manage, increasing costs or leading to inconsistent flavors.



	Scientists have described this process in mathematical terms, defining &quot;latent intentions&quot; to expand the concept of free energy. In this context, free energy includes not only the concept from active inference but also the agent&#39;s behavioral tendencies and predictions about observations. The agent&#39;s learning behavior can be seen as a continuous updating process (Markov chain) aimed at minimizing the value of Zt. This value comprises prediction error (the discrepancy with reality) and KL divergence (the complexity of the model).



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2398" height="124" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture3.png" width="605" />



	British cognitive scientist Andy Clark pointed out that the brain is a powerful prediction machine, constantly forecasting upcoming sensory inputs and adjusting these predictions based on actual inputs. In this process, the prediction error corresponds to the first term in the aforementioned formula. The second term, KL divergence, measures the difference in probability density between predictions before and after an action, reflecting the complexity of the predictive model. In habit-driven learning, whether an action is taken or not does not affect the prediction, making this term zero, meaning no model exists. Thus, KL divergence, which represents model complexity, turns the binary distinction between model-free and model-based approaches into a continuous spectrum.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2399" height="317" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture4.png" width="605" />



	▷ a) Schematic of integrating habits and goal frameworks. b) Structure of the framework during training. c) Structure of the framework during behavioral processes.



	In this framework, when faced with a new goal, early learning resembles a model-based system, similar to a chef who, upon opening his restaurant, tries to optimize his predictions of new customers&#39; tastes. Once this predictive model has been sufficiently refined through continuous training, it may shift toward a more habit-driven approach, where the chef continually perfects his signature dishes.



	&nbsp;


<h2 style="line-height: 1.5;">
	3. Significance: Enabling AI to Perform Zero-Shot Learning
</h2>


	One significant advantage of human intelligence is the ability to solve various tasks in entirely new environments without relying on prior examples. For instance, when a painter is asked to depict a mythical creature like a qilin, he or she only needs to know that the qilin is a symbol of good fortune. However, an AI would require specific prompts, such as: &quot;Depict a qilin from ancient Chinese mythology, with a dragon&#39;s head, deer antlers, lion&#39;s eyes, tiger&#39;s back, bear&#39;s waist, snake&#39;s scales, horse&#39;s hooves, and an ox&#39;s tail, exuding an overall aura of majesty and sanctity, with gold and red as the primary colors, against a backdrop of swirling clouds, symbolizing good fortune, peace, and imperial power.&quot;



	The first painter to depict a qilin did so through zero-shot learning after acquiring sufficient experience in painting; however, zero-shot learning remains a challenging task for current AI systems. This is precisely the issue that this framework aims to address.



	When the environment changes, an agent built using the integrated framework proposed in this paper can spontaneously switch from habit-based model-free learning to model-based learning. This allows the agent to adapt to the new environmental conditions. In their experiments, researchers used a T-maze to test the adaptability of these agents. In this maze, the agent must decide which direction to take based on rewards on either side, learning strategies to maximize rewards.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2400" height="190" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Picture5.png" width="500" /> ▷ T-maze and the three stages of the agent in response to environmental changes.



	In a habit-based system, the agent might continue following the previously rewarded path, even if the reward has changed. However, goal-directed agents face a different challenge. For example, if the initial reward on the left side of the maze is 100 times greater than on the right, the agent might need to try the left side a hundred times before updating the model and attempting the right side (depending on the specific agent model). This is undoubtedly an inefficient approach; in the real world, an organism displaying such behavior would likely be eliminated by natural selection. The framework proposed in this paper integrates goal-driven and habit-driven approaches, allowing the agent to balance flexibility and speed. Initially, it adapts to the environment by choosing the right side; when the environment changes (the left reward disappears), it readjusts to choose the left side.



	The simple T-maze experiment shows that the new framework aligns with Yann LeCun&#39;s concept of the world model. LeCun emphasizes that a world model has a dual role of planning for the future and estimating missing observations, and it should be an energy-based model. In goal-directed behavior, this framework uses the current state, goal, and intended actions as inputs, and outputs an energy value to describe their &quot;consistency.&quot; It can be said that the agent&#39;s decision-making in the T-maze builds upon and relies on the world model envisioned by LeCun.



	There is a long road ahead from the simple T-maze to highly complex large language models. However, based on the theoretical framework described in this paper, we can observe some important similarities. For example, in training language models, we typically predict based on existing vocabulary, similar to scenarios without specific goals set during the training phase. The flexibility of goal-directed planning in this framework comes from its ability to break down any future goal into a series of sequential steps, predicting only the next observation. This method minimizes the discrepancy between goal-directed intentions and prior distributions, thereby compressing the search space and making the search process more efficient. This approach is also suitable for large models.



	Additionally, based on the KL divergence term in the framework, we can understand the hierarchical structure in predictive coding, where a hierarchical information processing method is used to reduce model complexity. Predictive coding theory also suggests that the brain learns to recognize patterns by filtering out information that can be predicted through natural world patterns, thereby reducing unnecessary data. This information processing strategy echoes the information bottleneck theory, showing how cognitive processes can be optimized by using lower-dimensional representations.



	Finally, this theoretical framework not only enhances our understanding of healthy brain function but also provides new perspectives for understanding and treating neurological disorders. For example, patients with Parkinson&#39;s disease often struggle with goal-directed planning abilities and rely more on habitual behaviors. This may be due to high uncertainty within goal-directed intentions. Research on how medical interventions or deep brain stimulation (altering internal states) and sensory stimulation (altering brain input) can reduce this uncertainty may provide methods to improve motor control in Parkinson&#39;s patients.



	Moreover, research on autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can also benefit from this theoretical framework. Individuals with autism often exhibit repetitive behaviors, which may be related to an overemphasis on model complexity in predictive coding, affecting cognitive behavioral flexibility when adapting to changing environments. Introducing some randomness to increase behavioral diversity could be a potential intervention strategy.



	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;

[:zh]

[:]

Who Says Intuition and Deliberation Are Incompatible? A New Perspective Based on Free Energy

[:en]Who Says Intuition and Deliberation Are Incompatible? A New Perspective Based on Free Energy[:]

The "Thousand Brains Project" Officially Launched, Entering the AI Arena

[:en]The "Thousand Brains Project" Officially Launched, Entering the AI Arena[:]

[:en]<h3>
	1. What is EEG?
</h3>


	Similar to the electrocardiogram (ECG) and electromyography (EMG), electroencephalography (EEG) is a non-invasive method for recording the brain&#39;s electrical activity. As shown in the figure below, during an EEG measurement, electrode sensors are attached to the scalp. These sensors transmit the synchronized activity of neurons to a computer, which reflects the extracellular currents. It is important to note that EEG primarily reflects the activity of cortical neurons near the brain electrodes, while deep structures such as the hippocampus, thalamus, and brainstem do not directly influence the EEG.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2314" height="449" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/1-3.webp" width="632" />▷ EEG apparatus. Source: mayoclinic



	&nbsp;



	EEG enables the detection of various brain wave frequencies and can be used to assess different forms of sleep and epilepsy. In a normal human EEG, brain activity primarily ranges from 1 to 30 Hz. The main types of brain waves include &alpha; waves (8-13 Hz), &beta; waves (13-30 Hz), &delta; waves (0.5-4 Hz), and &theta; waves (4-7 Hz).



	&alpha; waves: These are typical of a relaxed, wakeful state and are most prominent in the parietal and occipital regions. For example, when the brain is in a state of relaxation or meditation, it enters the &alpha; wave state. &beta; waves: These low-amplitude waves become more prominent during intense neural activity, primarily appearing in the frontal lobe and other regions, and are considered a hallmark of working memory and logical thinking. &theta; and &delta; waves: These waves occur during drowsiness and early sleep stages. Their presence in an awake state may indicate brain dysfunction.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2316" height="455" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/2-3.webp" width="511" />



	▷ Various brain wave patterns. Source: infoinstruments



	&nbsp;


<h3>
	2. The Birth in 1924
</h3>


	As early as 1755, Italian scientists Luigi Galvani, Alessandro Volta, Georg Ohm, and Michael Faraday demonstrated the remarkable electrical properties of biological tissues.



	In 1870, Gustav Theodor Fritsch conducted studies on a dog&#39;s brain and published an article titled On the Electrical Excitability of the Brain. He discovered the electrical excitability of the exposed cerebral hemispheres in the dog&#39;s brain, concluding that certain areas of the brain were responsible for motor functions. However, his research was met with great skepticism in the academic community, since it was widely believed that electrical currents were generated deep within the brain rather than in the cortex.



	In 1913, Russian physiologist Prawdwicz-Neminski recorded EEGs from a dog. Due to the extremely small electrical changes detected by the electrodes and the lack of amplification techniques, the experiment had to be conducted on an exposed brain. Prawdwicz-Neminski was the first to describe a 12 to 14 Hz rhythm under normal conditions and coined the term &quot;electroencephalogram.&quot;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2317" height="495" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/3-3-1024x495.webp" width="1024" />▷ Prawdwicz-Neminski. Source: The Brainclinics Foundation / YouTube



	&nbsp;



	It was the German psychiatrist Hans Berger who truly introduced EEG to the scientific community. Berger&rsquo;s interest in EEG research stemmed from his fascination with telepathy involving his sister. In 1893, at the age of 19, Berger fell from his horse during a German military exercise and was nearly trampled. On that same day, his sister, who was far away, had an ominous premonition about him. She convinced their father to send a telegram asking if Hans was alright. For the young Berger, this eerie coincidence was not merely chance but a case of &ldquo;spontaneous telepathy.&rdquo; Convinced that he had transmitted his fearful thoughts to his sister, Berger decided to study psychiatry in an effort to uncover the mystery of how thoughts could be transmitted between people. This serendipitous event led Berger to make a significant contribution to modern medicine and science: he invented the EEG and was the first to systematically record EEGs from the human brain.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2318" height="576" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/4-3-1024x576.webp" width="1024" />▷ Hans Berger. Source: sciencenews



	&nbsp;



	In July 1924, a 17-year-old boy underwent neurosurgery, during which part of his brain was exposed due to a head injury. Taking advantage of this unexpected opportunity, Dr. Hans Berger recorded the boy&rsquo;s EEG through the exposed cranial window. Following this, Berger began attempting to record EEGs through the scalp, with his first volunteer being his son. Using a simple single-channel device, he successfully depicted &alpha; rhythms and &beta; activity, despite the recordings being brief, lasting only 1 to 3 minutes. He identified the normal occipital background rhythm and the faster frequency &beta; waves, which marked the official birth of EEG. Berger eventually accumulated 1,133 recordings from 76 patients. Despite publishing 14 scientific reports, he did not receive the recognition he deserved at the time, partly because his papers were written in German.



	Throughout his research on human EEGs, Berger kept pace with the latest technological advancements. He used various devices, starting with the initial Einstein model, then the Edelmann, and eventually the more powerful Siemens model. In 1929, he used the Siemens instrument to record the human EEG traces, which he reported in his first publication.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2319" height="438" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/5-3.webp" width="680" />▷ The first human EEG results published by Hans Berger. Source: sciencenews



	&nbsp;



	By 1934, British scientists Lord Edgar Adrian and Brian Matthews had verified Berger&rsquo;s findings, known as the &quot;Berger Rhythm,&quot; in a public demonstration at the Cambridge Physiological Society, later publishing their results in the journal Brain. With the technical improvements made by Adrian and Matthews, Berger continued his research, discovering that the widespread and regular brain rhythms changed when subjects opened their eyes or engaged in problem-solving.



	Throughout the 1930s, Berger continued his studies on human EEGs, publishing several reports that included some valuable findings, such as research on consciousness fluctuations, sleep spindles, the effects of hypoxia on the human brain, various diffuse and localized brain diseases, and even some indications of epileptic discharges.



	Tragically, the later years of this great scientist&rsquo;s life took a dark turn. Before the outbreak of World War II, he was expelled from his research position at the University of Jena in Germany and forced to take non-research work in a nursing home. Believing he was suffering from a fatal heart disease and afflicted with infections and depression, he ultimately took his own life in 1941. The scientific community now agrees that Berger deserved a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, but by the time he was nominated in 1942 and 1947, the founder of EEG had long passed away.


<h3>
	3. From Europe to North America
</h3>


	Around 1935, the emerging field of electroencephalography (EEG) began to shift its focus from Europe to North America, led by a group of researchers who crossed the Atlantic. On this new stage, American EEG science rapidly gained international recognition, particularly through the research of Hallowell Davis at Harvard University, Frederic A. Gibbs and Erna L. Gibbs, and Herbert H. Jasper at Brown University.



	A. J. Derbyshire, a graduate student under Davis, was deeply inspired by Berger&#39;s 1929 paper and had been attempting to demonstrate the &alpha; rhythm, but his efforts repeatedly failed. It wasn&#39;t until 1934 that Davis recorded his own &alpha; rhythm, sparking great excitement in the laboratory.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2320" height="683" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/6-2-1024x683.webp" width="1024" />▷ A. J. Derbyshire (left), Hallowell Davis, and early EEG equipment. Source: oto.wustl.edu



	&nbsp;



	That same year, a breakthrough in clinical EEG was achieved in the study of epilepsy patients. Frederic A. Gibbs established a connection with William G. Lennox, a prominent epileptologist of the time. Lennox had already begun studying cerebral circulation by measuring the oxygen and carbon dioxide content in jugular vein blood. Erna L. Gibbs, an immigrant from Germany, was Lennox&#39;s technical collaborator and later became his wife. A self-taught EEG technician, Erna Gibbs became one of the world&#39;s earliest EEG technicians and contributed to many important research papers, including a landmark study on cerebral blood flow.



	In the subsequent years, EEG gained more attention than cerebral blood flow in Lennox&#39;s research. Notably, Lennox, the Gibbses, and Davis collaborated on a study that identified the association of 3 Hz spike-wave complexes with petit mal absences in 12 epileptic children. This finding has since become a standard diagnostic tool in EEG.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2321" height="779" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/7.webp" width="819" />▷ In 1937, William G. Lennox, Erna L. Gibbs, and Frederic A. Gibbs examining EEG traces on paper rolls. Source: Stone, James L., and John R. Hughes. &quot;Early history of electroencephalography and establishment of the American Clinical Neurophysiology Society.&quot; Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 30.1 (2013): 28-44.



	&nbsp;



	Unlike Berger, who was fascinated by oscillatory rhythms, Frederic Gibbs was more interested in paroxysmal EEG patterns, such as spike waves. The Gibbses and Lennox later reported on the EEG patterns associated with grand mal seizures and psychomotor epilepsy. However, the rapid spike-wave intervals in grand mal seizures and the 4 or 6 Hz rhythmic activity in psychomotor epilepsy did not garner as much attention as the 3 Hz spike-wave pattern in petit mal epilepsy.



	Recognizing the limitations of EEG recording techniques, the Gibbses visited Hans Berger in Germany in the summer of 1935 and studied the &quot;polyscope&quot; instrument of J. F. Toennies at the Berlin Buch Research Institute. During their time in Europe, they also came across the EEG instrument developed by Matthews in England. Frederic Gibbs later contacted Albert Grass at MIT to manufacture a three-channel preamplifier, resulting in the Grass Model I EEG. This device included three channels and an ink-writing recorder, which captured the traces on paper rolls. The Grass Model I came into use in 1935, marking the beginning of the commercial EEG era.



	Looking back, the 1930s era of Gibbs-Gibbs-Lennox proved to be one of the most exciting and productive periods in EEG history. During those years, EEG demonstrated its greatest utility in the study of epileptic seizure disorders.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2322" height="765" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/8-1024x765.webp" width="1024" />▷ Grass Model 8-10C EEG machine. Source: Niall Williams



	&nbsp;



	Another noteworthy pioneer in clinical EEG research during the 1930s was William Grey Walter. Walter&#39;s work in 1936 established him as a trailblazer in clinical EEG. He was the first to apply EEG in the diagnosis of brain tumors and to monitor the effects of anesthesia during surgery. Walter identified &delta; and &theta; waves in slow brain activity and introduced the first method for automatic analysis of brain bioelectrical signals.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2323" height="376" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/9.webp" width="558" />▷ William Grey Walter (left). Source: Wikipedia



	&nbsp;



	From 1960 onwards, EEG became a clinical tool not only for studying and diagnosing epilepsy and space-occupying lesions but also as a valuable diagnostic and prognostic test in many other medical fields. At the same time, EEG contributed to defining and standardizing various sleep stages and provided valuable information for the study of sleep disorders.



	However, during World War II (1939-1945), research and clinical EEG activities were restricted, especially in Europe. After the war, the gap between North American and European EEG research widened significantly, with European efforts falling into decline. Meanwhile, across the Atlantic, Frederic Gibbs and his colleagues conducted a significant study on anterior temporal lobe spike discharges during the interictal period in patients with psychomotor epilepsy, an important work in elucidating the mechanisms of temporal lobe epilepsy that had far-reaching implications for the development of EEG research.



	Despite his international reputation and recognition as a leader in clinical EEG, Gibbs&#39;s status at Harvard did not match his stature. He held only a lecturer&#39;s post, with status and salary far below that of a professor, even though many of his European peers longed to visit his laboratory.


<h3>
	4. The Clinical Adoption of EEG
</h3>


	In the 1950s, EEG became widely recognized in the medical field. In the early 1950s, almost every academic tertiary care center had at least one EEG machine. By the late 1950s, EEG equipment had spread to many smaller hospitals and even private clinics. Central and departmental EEG laboratories were established in university hospitals, and the field of pediatric EEG also began to develop.



	Some psychiatric departments took particular pride in their clinical and research-oriented EEG work, as doctors had already recognized that many diseases affecting the central nervous system could be detected by corresponding signs on an EEG.



	Neurosurgeons like Wilder G. Penfield and A. Earl Walker, who were focused on epilepsy research, began to show interest in EEG and its application on the cortical surface or within deeper cortical structures. By the late 1950s, researchers such as Meyers, Hayne, and Knott pioneered the use of implanted intracranial electrodes for deep EEG monitoring in humans. In the 1960s, deep EEG became essential in the surgical treatment of intractable epilepsy.



	Following 30 years of rapid and sustained development in clinical and experimental EEG research, the field reached its peak around 1960, after which research activity began to decline. EEG experts in academic institutions shifted their focus from tracing brain wave patterns to automated data analysis. Notably, Cooley and Tukey introduced the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) in 1965 to extract the spectral or frequency content of signals, laying the foundation for power spectral analysis. Their work set new standards for EEG computerization, paving the way for the quantitative EEG (qEEG) we use today.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2324" height="510" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/10.webp" width="610" />In the 1970s and 1980s, the advent of structural neuroimaging technologies like computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) appeared to challenge EEG&rsquo;s role in diagnosing structural brain abnormalities. However, this shift was more superficial than substantive. EEG was never intended as a structural test; it remains the only diagnostic tool capable of providing large-scale, real-time measurements of neocortical dynamic function.



	Later, topical EEG diagnosis re-entered the spotlight in the form of computerized brain function localization. This development is closely associated with the name Frank Duffy, whose work Clinical Electroencephalography and Topographic Brain Mapping reinvigorated EEG technology, achieving an innovative blend of traditional techniques with modern advancements.


<h3>
	5. Outlook and Conclusion
</h3>


	Today, EEG is utilized both clinically and in research to further elucidate brain function. Its developmental trajectory can be summarized as becoming &quot;spatially finer and temporally more precise.&quot; In modern neuroscience research, EEG is used to study human attention, consciousness, language, and decision-making processes. Researchers aim to gain deeper insights into the workings of the brain by analyzing the dynamic characteristics of brain waves.



	Clinically, beyond its traditional applications in epilepsy and sleep studies, EEG traces hold the potential to reveal further clues to neurological disorders. For instance, combining EEG biomarkers with AI could facilitate early detection, diagnosis, and monitoring of treatment in various diseases. Additionally, the development of brain-computer interface technology has introduced new applications for EEG. These include aiding severely disabled individuals in communication and helping paralyzed patients regain motor function through prosthetics.



	What will EEG be like in the next century? We cannot know for certain. However, if EEG recording becomes as convenient as tracking heart rate with a fitness watch, its applications could expand significantly. At that point, EEG could transcend research and clinical boundaries, becoming an integral part of everyday life for all.

[:]

The Unsung Brilliance: A Century of EEG

[:en]The Unsung Brilliance: A Century of EEG[:]

As artificial intelligence continues to advance, AI generation technology has become a valuable tool in the creative industries. Creators, like scriptwriters and copywriters, now face a crucial decision: should they use advanced AI models to inspire and enrich their creative processes?


	A recent study published in Science Advances offers a nuanced answer to this question. While AI has the potential to significantly boost individual creativity, it might also contribute to increased mediocrity and less originality in creative output. These findings shed light on both the benefits and risks of incorporating AI into creative writing, enriching our understanding of how large model applications could influence human behavior and shape the broader social and cultural landscape.


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2305" height="324" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/1-1024x324.png" width="1024" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/1-1024x324.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/1-300x95.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/1-768x243.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" />


	&nbsp;


	▷ Doshi, Anil R., and Oliver P. Hauser. &quot;Generative AI enhances individual creativity but reduces the collective diversity of novel content.&quot; Science Advances 10.28 (2024): eadn5290.


	&nbsp;

<h3>
	1. Question: How to Assess Creativity? 
</h3>

	Generative AI technology is now capable of producing content that appears creative in text (e.g., ChatGPT), images (e.g., Midjourney), audio (e.g., Jukebox), and video (e.g., Pictory). While previous research has shown that AI can collaborate with humans to develop storylines, whether this collaboration truly sparks inspiration or merely confines the creator&#39;s thinking to the examples provided by the AI, thereby limiting creative expression, remains relatively unexplored.


	When assessing creativity, we typically consider two dimensions: novelty and usefulness. Novelty refers to how much an idea deviates from conventional expectations, indicating a story&#39;s originality and uniqueness. Usefulness, on the other hand, concerns how well an idea aligns with intended goals, including the story&#39;s adaptability to its target audience, its potential to evolve into a series (e.g., books), and its commercial viability.


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2306" height="420" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/2-2-1024x420.webp" width="1024" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/2-2-1024x420.webp 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/2-2-300x123.webp 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/2-2-768x315.webp 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/2-2.webp 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" />


	&nbsp;


	▷ Fig.1. Experimental design flowchart, source: the paper.


	&nbsp;


	In this study, the researchers recruited 293 online participants and asked them to write a brief story consisting of eight sentences. To explore the impact of large models on creative writing, participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: a human-only group with no AI prompts, a group that received a single AI-generated idea, and a group that received five AI-generated ideas. To assess the creativity of these stories, the researchers recruited an additional 600 evaluators online. These evaluators, unaware of the stories&#39; sources, scored them based on usefulness, novelty, and several emotional dimensions.

<h3>
	2. Findings: Increased Individual Creativity but Decreased Group Diversity 
</h3>

	The study found that AI-generated ideas can act as a springboard for human thought, offering starting points that inspire diverse story developments and create a &quot;tree-like structure.&quot; Participants who received five prompts from large models showed the greatest creative boost compared to those without AI prompts, with their stories scoring 8.1% higher in novelty and 9% higher in usefulness (Fig.2A).


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2307" height="489" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/3-2-1024x489.webp" width="1024" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/3-2-1024x489.webp 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/3-2-300x143.webp 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/3-2-768x367.webp 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/3-2.webp 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" />


	&nbsp;


	▷ Fig.2. Comparison of the average evaluation results between human writing without large model assistance (baseline) and the groups that received one or five AI-generated ideas.


	&nbsp;


	To assess intrinsic creativity, the researchers had participants complete a divergent thinking task&mdash;listing 10 distinct words&mdash;before writing. The study revealed that AI-generated ideas had little impact on participants who were already highly creative. However, for those with lower creativity, AI assistance significantly reduced the monotony in their work, lowering it by 15.2%.


	The researchers used text embeddings from OpenAI to calculate the similarity between stories. The results showed that stories from participants who received AI prompts were 10.7% more similar to each other, with less variation and diversity. This suggests that while AI assistance can enhance individual creativity, it may also lead to greater similarity among ideas at the group level, reducing collective novelty and diminishing creative diversity.


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2308" height="713" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/4-2-1024x713.webp" width="1024" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/4-2-1024x713.webp 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/4-2-300x209.webp 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/4-2-768x535.webp 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/4-2.webp 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" />


	▷ Fig.3. Comparison of intergroup story similarity among the three groups and the probability density distribution of similarity to AI-generated prompts. A sharper peak indicates higher within-group similarity.


	&nbsp;

<h3>
	3. Discussion 
</h3>

	Interestingly, a paper published in Scientific Reports this February examined GPT-4&#39;s divergent thinking in terms of fluency, originality, and elaboration, and found results similar to our study. GPT-4 outperformed human participants on all measures of divergent thinking. When controlling for response fluency, GPT-4 particularly excelled in originality and elaboration. However, compared to humans, GPT-4 used a higher frequency of repeated words and had a more concentrated vocabulary. This finding aligns with the reduction in collective novelty observed in our study.


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2309" height="479" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/5-2-1024x479.webp" width="1024" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/5-2-1024x479.webp 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/5-2-300x140.webp 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/5-2-768x359.webp 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/5-2.webp 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" />▷ Hubert, K.F., Awa, K.N. &amp; Zabelina, D.L. The current state of artificial intelligence generative language models is more creative than humans on divergent thinking tasks.&nbsp;Sci Rep&nbsp;14, 3440 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-53303-w


	&nbsp;


	How do large models impact unique human traits like creativity? Current research clearly shows that while AI-assisted creative writing can enhance individual creativity, it also poses a critical risk: the novelty of collective creativity may be compromised. If the publishing industry increasingly embraces AI-generated content, it may become homogenized, leading to a loss of individual creators&#39; uniqueness. This could create a vicious cycle: as individual writers perceive AI-assisted writing enhances their creativity, they may rely more on such technology, potentially weakening overall innovation in literary works.


	Of course, the current experimental design has its limitations. The researchers only recruited non-professional writers as volunteers through an online platform, without offering additional financial incentives. Participants who received AI prompts were given those generated by a template, rather than having the freedom to interact with ChatGPT directly. The writing task was limited to composing a short, eight-sentence story that didn&rsquo;t require complex causal relationships, which doesn&rsquo;t fully reflect real-world creative writing. Additionally, since this study is based on a Western cultural context, its applicability to Chinese culture remains uncertain.


	In summary, while AI holds immense potential for the creative industries, balancing its advantages and disadvantages to ensure healthy technological development will be a significant challenge. Now that you know the results of this experiment, what choice will you make?


	&nbsp;


	&nbsp;

[:en]
	As artificial intelligence continues to advance, AI generation technology has become a valuable tool in the creative industries. Creators, like scriptwriters and copywriters, now face a crucial decision: should they use advanced AI models to inspire and enrich their creative processes?



	A recent study published in Science Advances offers a nuanced answer to this question. While AI has the potential to significantly boost individual creativity, it might also contribute to increased mediocrity and less originality in creative output. These findings shed light on both the benefits and risks of incorporating AI into creative writing, enriching our understanding of how large model applications could influence human behavior and shape the broader social and cultural landscape.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2305" height="324" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/1-1024x324.png" width="1024" />



	&nbsp;



	▷ Doshi, Anil R., and Oliver P. Hauser. &quot;Generative AI enhances individual creativity but reduces the collective diversity of novel content.&quot; Science Advances 10.28 (2024): eadn5290.



	&nbsp;


<h3>
	1. Question: How to Assess Creativity?
</h3>


	Generative AI technology is now capable of producing content that appears creative in text (e.g., ChatGPT), images (e.g., Midjourney), audio (e.g., Jukebox), and video (e.g., Pictory). While previous research has shown that AI can collaborate with humans to develop storylines, whether this collaboration truly sparks inspiration or merely confines the creator&#39;s thinking to the examples provided by the AI, thereby limiting creative expression, remains relatively unexplored.



	When assessing creativity, we typically consider two dimensions: novelty and usefulness. Novelty refers to how much an idea deviates from conventional expectations, indicating a story&#39;s originality and uniqueness. Usefulness, on the other hand, concerns how well an idea aligns with intended goals, including the story&#39;s adaptability to its target audience, its potential to evolve into a series (e.g., books), and its commercial viability.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2306" height="420" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/2-2-1024x420.webp" width="1024" />



	&nbsp;



	▷ Fig.1. Experimental design flowchart, source: the paper.



	&nbsp;



	In this study, the researchers recruited 293 online participants and asked them to write a brief story consisting of eight sentences. To explore the impact of large models on creative writing, participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: a human-only group with no AI prompts, a group that received a single AI-generated idea, and a group that received five AI-generated ideas. To assess the creativity of these stories, the researchers recruited an additional 600 evaluators online. These evaluators, unaware of the stories&#39; sources, scored them based on usefulness, novelty, and several emotional dimensions.


<h3>
	2. Findings: Increased Individual Creativity but Decreased Group Diversity
</h3>


	The study found that AI-generated ideas can act as a springboard for human thought, offering starting points that inspire diverse story developments and create a &quot;tree-like structure.&quot; Participants who received five prompts from large models showed the greatest creative boost compared to those without AI prompts, with their stories scoring 8.1% higher in novelty and 9% higher in usefulness (Fig.2A).



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2307" height="489" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/3-2-1024x489.webp" width="1024" />



	&nbsp;



	▷ Fig.2. Comparison of the average evaluation results between human writing without large model assistance (baseline) and the groups that received one or five AI-generated ideas.



	&nbsp;



	To assess intrinsic creativity, the researchers had participants complete a divergent thinking task&mdash;listing 10 distinct words&mdash;before writing. The study revealed that AI-generated ideas had little impact on participants who were already highly creative. However, for those with lower creativity, AI assistance significantly reduced the monotony in their work, lowering it by 15.2%.



	The researchers used text embeddings from OpenAI to calculate the similarity between stories. The results showed that stories from participants who received AI prompts were 10.7% more similar to each other, with less variation and diversity. This suggests that while AI assistance can enhance individual creativity, it may also lead to greater similarity among ideas at the group level, reducing collective novelty and diminishing creative diversity.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2308" height="713" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/4-2-1024x713.webp" width="1024" />



	▷ Fig.3. Comparison of intergroup story similarity among the three groups and the probability density distribution of similarity to AI-generated prompts. A sharper peak indicates higher within-group similarity.



	&nbsp;


<h3>
	3. Discussion
</h3>


	Interestingly, a paper published in Scientific Reports this February examined GPT-4&#39;s divergent thinking in terms of fluency, originality, and elaboration, and found results similar to our study. GPT-4 outperformed human participants on all measures of divergent thinking. When controlling for response fluency, GPT-4 particularly excelled in originality and elaboration. However, compared to humans, GPT-4 used a higher frequency of repeated words and had a more concentrated vocabulary. This finding aligns with the reduction in collective novelty observed in our study.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2309" height="479" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/5-2-1024x479.webp" width="1024" />▷ Hubert, K.F., Awa, K.N. &amp; Zabelina, D.L. The current state of artificial intelligence generative language models is more creative than humans on divergent thinking tasks.&nbsp;Sci Rep&nbsp;14, 3440 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-53303-w



	&nbsp;



	How do large models impact unique human traits like creativity? Current research clearly shows that while AI-assisted creative writing can enhance individual creativity, it also poses a critical risk: the novelty of collective creativity may be compromised. If the publishing industry increasingly embraces AI-generated content, it may become homogenized, leading to a loss of individual creators&#39; uniqueness. This could create a vicious cycle: as individual writers perceive AI-assisted writing enhances their creativity, they may rely more on such technology, potentially weakening overall innovation in literary works.



	Of course, the current experimental design has its limitations. The researchers only recruited non-professional writers as volunteers through an online platform, without offering additional financial incentives. Participants who received AI prompts were given those generated by a template, rather than having the freedom to interact with ChatGPT directly. The writing task was limited to composing a short, eight-sentence story that didn&rsquo;t require complex causal relationships, which doesn&rsquo;t fully reflect real-world creative writing. Additionally, since this study is based on a Western cultural context, its applicability to Chinese culture remains uncertain.



	In summary, while AI holds immense potential for the creative industries, balancing its advantages and disadvantages to ensure healthy technological development will be a significant challenge. Now that you know the results of this experiment, what choice will you make?



	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;

[:zh]

[:]

Will Enhancing Individual Creativity Through Large Models Lead to a More Creative World?

[:en]Will Enhancing Individual Creativity Through Large Models Lead to a More Creative World?[:]

[:en]
	For readers with a background in high school mathematics or statistics, the most recognized probability distribution is the normal distribution, which describes how an independent variable behaves under the influence of random factors after repeated trials. However, the log-normal distribution, characterized by its long tail, is more commonly observed in the brain.



	What biological mechanisms give rise to the log-normal distribution? How does the brain utilize this distribution across different scales&mdash;from cellular to perceptual&mdash;to support its complex functions? How does the brain&#39;s adherence to this distribution pattern enable efficient computation and inspire advancements in artificial intelligence? This article will review foundational theories and several subsequent studies in an attempt to answer these questions.


<h3>
	1. Normal Distribution vs. Log-Normal Distribution
</h3>


	What is a log-normal distribution? To grasp this concept, imagine participating in a virtual stock market simulation game. At the start of the game, each player has the same initial capital. Players must buy and sell stocks daily based on random market fluctuations. The decisions and luck of each player determine their gains or losses. On the first day, the distribution of players&#39; gains and losses will follow a normal distribution, with a few players experiencing significant losses, a few others achieving substantial gains, and most falling somewhere in between with minor gains or losses. 
	However, over time, you&#39;ll notice that although the daily fluctuations are random (with each decision&rsquo;s outcome following a normal distribution), the final distribution of each player&rsquo;s capital becomes skewed and long-tailed. This is the log-normal distribution. 
	Because the player&rsquo;s capital changes based on their previous balance, a cumulative effect takes place. As a result, most players&rsquo; capital tends to cluster at lower levels. Those who consistently break even or incur small losses over time will see their capital stabilize at lower amounts. Conversely, a very small number of players will accumulate significant wealth as consistent winners continue to gain more, resulting in a long-tailed distribution*.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2292" height="424" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/对数-01.png" width="605" />



	▷ Fig.1. A comparison of normal distribution (green) and log-normal distribution (red). The compares the normal distribution (green) and the log-normal distribution (red). In the stock market example, the horizontal axis represents capital, and the vertical axis represents the number of players. In the case of neurons, the horizontal axis represents activation frequency, and the vertical axis represents the number of neurons. In the stock market example, because each player&#39;s capital changes by a fixed percentage (e.g., increasing or decreasing by 50%) based on their previous balance with each trade, only a very small portion of players consistently lose (e.g., from 100 to 50 to 25 to 12.5 to 6.25), while a few consistently win (e.g., from 100 to 150 to 225 to 337.5). Most players fall somewhere in between, fluctuating between gains and losses (e.g., 100 to 150 to 75 to 112.5 to 56.25; 100 to 50 to 75 to 37.5 to 56.25), with the majority clustering at lower values.



	&nbsp;



	In academic circles, random variables following a log-normal distribution are often described using terms like power law or scale-free, all referring to the same underlying phenomenon.


<h3>
	2. Log-Normal Distributions in Neuronal Activations, Dendritic Spine Sizes, and Synaptic Densities
</h3>


	In the brain, the behavior of neurons is analogous to the lights in a city. Most of the lights remain off, but occasionally, a small number turn on, illuminating the surrounding area. Multiple studies have demonstrated that these intervals of &#39;illumination,&#39; reflected in the firing rates of neurons, follow a log-normal distribution pattern [1]. This pattern is consistent across different species, including mice and humans. It is observed in both excitatory pyramidal neurons and inhibitory interneurons and is evident in brain regions ranging from the evolutionarily primitive cerebellum to the neocortex, which is responsible for higher cognitive functions.



	The asymmetry of the log-normal distribution means that a small portion of neurons in the brain are frequently active, while the majority remain relatively idle, only occasionally activating. Moreover, the amplitude of neuronal firing spikes and the weights of synapses also follow a log-normal distribution [1].



	&nbsp;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2293" height="663" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/对数-02-1024x663.webp" width="1024" /> 
	▷ Fig.2. In various brain regions and environments, the firing rates of common types of neurons follow a log-normal distribution (both the horizontal and vertical axes have been logarithmically transformed, resulting in a linear scatter plot). Source: Reference 1.



	&nbsp;



	However, neurons do not simply &#39;turn on&#39; or &#39;off.&#39; Closer examination of their structure reveals spiny protrusions on dendritic branches known as dendritic spines. A single neuron may contain hundreds of dendritic spines, varying in size. These spines undergo plasticity during neuronal development and play critical roles in information storage and computation.



	A study observed that in the auditory cortex of mice, the sizes of dendritic spines also follow a log-normal distribution (Fig.3). Furthermore, the magnitude of their changes is proportional to their original size, resembling the fluctuations in stock market capital: the larger the investment, the greater the fluctuation.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2294" height="818" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/04-1024x818.webp" width="1024" /> 
	▷ Fig.3. The sizes of dendritic spines follow a log-normal distribution. A: Schematic of a dendritic spine, B: Raw probability distribution, C, D: Log-transformed number of dendritic spines and probability distribution on the X-axis.



	&nbsp;



	The above analysis is based on recordings from individual neurons. However, with advances in connectomics, researchers can now map networks composed of neurons within specific regions. For example, a study of nine mammalian species [3] found that in seven of these species, neuronal density (the number of neurons per cubic millimeter) in the cerebral cortex follows a log-normal distribution (Fig.4). This suggests that the log-normal distribution is a fundamental principle of the macroscopic organization of the nervous system and should be considered a constraint when designing neuromorphic hardware.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2296" height="1020" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/05.webp" width="1002" /> 
	▷ Fig.4. Distribution of neuronal densities across nine mammalian species. The degree of deviation is shown, with the two species that do not follow the log-normal distribution (GALAGO and OWL MONKEY) possibly due to uneven sampling and insufficient sample size. Source: Reference 3.



	&nbsp;


<h3>
	3. Is It True That We Only Use 10% of Our Brain?
</h3>


	The popular myth that we only use 10% of our brain arises from a fundamental misunderstanding of how brain activity is distributed. Brain activity is not uniformly distributed; rather, it exhibits a &#39;long-tail&#39; characteristic, with a small number of neurons being highly active while the majority are less active. The distribution of neuronal firing rates is often attributed to the complex interconnectedness of neurons [1].


<h4>
	(1) Interactions Between Neurons
</h4>


	Let&#39;s use the analogy of a large symphony orchestra to better understand this concept. In a symphony orchestra, each musician has their own instrument and plays at their own rhythm. During a performance, not all musicians play simultaneously. Instead, depending on the composition, some musicians play more actively, creating the music&#39;s climax, while others may rest, waiting for their next cue. This uneven activity pattern mirrors the activation states of neurons in the brain: most neurons are relatively &quot;quiet&quot; most of the time, but a small, ever-changing group of active neurons drives the brain&#39;s complex thinking and perception tasks.



	The scientific basis for this activity pattern is that interactions between neurons are not merely additive but cumulative, much like the harmonious coordination and mutual stimulation among musicians, involving complex regulation and feedback mechanisms. For example, in certain situations, the activity of one neuron may prompt other closely connected neurons to become active, forming a &quot;hotspot&quot; of activity. This phenomenon across the entire neural network results in a log-normal distribution pattern.



	In addition to explaining cumulative effects through neuronal connectivity, some studies use the &quot;Integrate-and-Fire Model&quot; to demonstrate that even individual neurons can exhibit a log-normal distribution in firing rates due to internal cumulative adjustments (such as the compounding errors in membrane potential discharge) [4].


<h4>
	(2) Hebbian Theory
</h4>


	Hebbian theory, which describes the self-organization of neurons, offers another explanation for the log-normal distribution observed in the nervous system [5]. Similar to relationships in a social network, neurons that frequently activate together form stronger connections. Whether in simple organisms like C. elegans or more complex species like fruit flies and mice, the number and density of neuronal connections exhibit a scale-free, long-tail characteristic&mdash;most connections are weak, while a few are very strong.



	The theoretical predictions of these models align with experimental results. Enhancing connections between co-activated neurons&mdash;including direct first-order connections and second- and third-order indirect connections (Fig.5a)&mdash;reproduces the actual distribution of connection strengths observed (solid line in Fig.5b). This suggests that the modularity of the nervous system arises from the generative mechanisms of the network rather than the specificity of species or neurons, further explaining the ubiquity of log-normal probability distributions.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2295" height="469" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/06-1024x469.webp" width="1024" /> 
	▷ Fig.5. Hebbian theory-based explanation of the scale-free nature of neural activity.



	&nbsp;


<h4>
	(3) Energy Consumption and Evolutionary Perspective
</h4>


	From the perspective of reducing brain energy consumption and signal transmission distance, the log-normal distribution is advantageous [6]. Specifically, this is achieved by clustering a small number of neurons in a certain area to form a modular &quot;rich club&quot; and having a few neurons frequently activate. Therefore, modularity and the frequent activation of a small number of computational units should be guiding principles for designing neuromorphic computing systems.



	Evolutionarily, a ready group of neurons with dense connections and rapid activation can be seen as a core system within the brain, always prepared to act swiftly, which is crucial for species survival. However, the full functionality of the brain depends on another system provided by the majority of neurons with sparse connections and infrequent activation. These neurons participate less in daily activities but are crucial when adapting to new or uncommon stimuli. 
	Thus, instead of saying we use only 10% of our brain, we should understand that only 10% of the brain is actively working at any given moment. This reflects an optimal balance achieved by the brain to handle both common and uncommon stimuli across multiple timescales, a characteristic of the brain&#39;s criticality [7].


<h4>
	(4) Other Explanations
</h4>


	In addition to the models mentioned above, another explanation for the log-normal distribution in the nervous system [8] considers two different types of neurons. This model divides neurons into two categories: one that remains silent due to excessive &quot;silent&quot; signals (inhibitory neuron influence), and another that becomes highly active due to &quot;volume increase&quot; (excitatory neuron influence). The model assumes that the initial signals received by all neurons are uniformly distributed, like evenly distributed sounds. However, as these signals accumulate within neurons, those more influenced by excitatory signals amplify them, resulting in their activity output following a log-normal distribution.



	This model not only explains how the balance between excitation and inhibition shapes neural responses but also clarifies how the nervous system maintains sensitivity to small signals while avoiding overreaction to excessively strong inputs.



	&nbsp;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2297" height="290" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/07.webp" width="384" /> 
	▷ Fig.6. Log-normal distribution among neurons due to nonlinear gain effects.



	&nbsp;



	Moreover, a model proposed by Per Bak in his book How Nature Works offers another perspective, known as the &quot;critical sandpile model.&quot; In this model, the accumulation and collapse of sand grains resemble the dynamic changes in neural networks: as the sandpile grows, small collapses occur frequently, while large collapses, requiring more accumulated sand, are rarer.



	Scientists, through studying the physical and mechanical properties of the cytoskeleton [9], have discovered that the aggregation and fragmentation behaviors of neurons resemble the collapse of a sandpile. This process leads to the distribution of neuronal density also exhibiting a log-normal distribution, which explains the uneven phenomenon in neural networks where a &quot;few neurons are highly active while the majority remain silent.&quot;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2299" height="1024" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/nature-692x1024.webp" width="692" /> 
	▷ How Nature Works by Per Bak.



	&nbsp;


<h3>
	4. Conclusion: What Is the Value of Examining the Statistical Characteristics of the Nervous System?
</h3>


	Thoroughly analyzing the statistical characteristics of the nervous system allows researchers to uncover universal principles that span different species and brain regions, while also exploring how these features change under various environmental stimuli.



	For example, a study on rhesus monkeys found that neuronal firing rates follow a log-normal distribution when exposed to both familiar and unfamiliar visual stimuli [10]. However, the statistical properties of these firing rates differ depending on the familiarity of the environment. When viewing unfamiliar images, the long-tail feature of the distribution becomes more pronounced, with an increase in variance (Fig.8). This suggests that neurons become more actively engaged when processing novel stimuli, while in familiar settings, the brain relies on pre-established modules.



	However, this study only considered neuronal connections and did not account for the role of dendritic spines, which also play a part in storage and computation. It is possible that, when faced with familiar stimuli, the nervous system opts for less energy-intensive local changes in dendritic spines to maintain plasticity. This hypothesis awaits further research. Similar research approaches could compare the probability distribution of neuronal density across different brain regions and explore potential differences based on mechanical, genetic, or gene expression factors during development.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-2298" height="912" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/08-1024x912.webp" width="1024" /> 
	▷ Fig.8. Theoretical and actual probability distributions of neuronal firing rates in rhesus monkeys in response to familiar and unfamiliar stimuli.



	&nbsp;



	A well-known example of the log-normal distribution in the nervous system is the concept of a &quot;neuronal avalanche,&quot; where neural activity experiences brief bursts lasting tens of milliseconds, followed by a few seconds of quiescence. Neuronal avalanches are closely related to the brain&#39;s ability to store, transmit, and compute information, as well as its sparsity and stability. They are among the fundamental constraints to consider when designing neuromorphic computing systems. For example, the &quot;Thousand Brains Theory&quot; proposed for cortical column computation&mdash;whether its model can reproduce the log-normal distribution described here&mdash;could be a criterion for its success.



	Various models based on different assumptions have been developed to explain the mechanisms behind the log-normal distributions observed in the nervous system. Many of these models can fit real data. It is likely that each model captures a particular aspect of the true nature of the nervous system, but the actual pattern of neural activity may result from a combination of these mechanisms.



	From a broader perspective, the log-normal distribution observed in the nervous system reflects its inherent heterogeneity and serves as the foundation for robust learning and energy-efficient computation in the brain. Although terms like &quot;power law,&quot; &quot;scale-free,&quot; and &quot;neuronal avalanche&quot; describe different aspects of these distributions, they fundamentally point to the same complex biological logic. This article provides only an overview of the relevant research; readers interested in these topics can delve further into the references, particularly Reference 1.



	As observed in the stock market simulation game, the brain&#39;s operating patterns bear a notable resemblance to many phenomena in our daily lives, all following certain fundamental mathematical laws. From the micro-level responses of individual neurons to the macro-level dynamics of entire neural networks, the brain utilizes log-normal distributions to optimize information processing, conserve energy, and enhance its adaptability to the external world. This mathematical essence raises the question of whether long-tail distributions and neuronal avalanches, produced by self-organizing processes, can also be observed in artificial neural networks. Do the activation rates in Transformers also follow a log-normal distribution?

[:zh]

[:]

Why Is the Brain Governed by a Log-Normal Distribution?

[:en]Why Is the Brain Governed by a Log-Normal Distribution?[:]

&nbsp;


	&nbsp;


	Concerns about AI safety persist. Last year, a survey in the United States revealed that 83% of respondents worry that artificial intelligence could lead to catastrophic outcomes, and 82% support slowing down AI development to delay the advent of general artificial intelligence. Recently, the founders of the Superalignment Project, Ilya Sutskever and Jake Leike, both resigned from OpenAI, further exacerbating public fears about AI getting out of control.


	&nbsp;


	Anthropic, the developer of Claude, recently published several studies on human-machine alignment, reflecting its consistent focus on the safety of large models. This article will review several of Claude&#39;s previous studies, highlighting the academic community&#39;s efforts to create safer, more operable, and more reliable models.


	&nbsp;


	1. AI Not Only Deceives but Also Flatters


	&nbsp;


	Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF) is a common technique for training high-quality AI assistants. However, RLHF can also encourage models to provide answers that align with user beliefs rather than truthful responses, a behavior known as &quot;sycophancy.&quot; A 2023 study [1] demonstrated that five state-of-the-art AI assistants consistently exhibited sycophantic behavior across four different tasks. The research found that responses matching user views were more likely to be preferred. Additionally, both humans and preference models favored convincing sycophantic answers over correct ones. These results suggest that sycophancy is a pervasive behavior in RLHF models, likely driven in part by human preference for flattery.


	&nbsp;


	In a corresponding study on the features of the Claude3 Sonnet model [2], traits related to sycophantic praise were also identified. These traits were activated when the model received input containing praise, such as &quot;your wisdom is unquestionable.&quot; Artificially activating this function could lead Claude3 to respond with elaborate deceit to overconfident users.


	&nbsp;


	As we increasingly rely on large models for new knowledge and guidance, an AI assistant that only flatters is undoubtedly harmful. Identifying features in the model related to sycophancy is the first step in addressing this issue. By studying the model&#39;s internals to find the corresponding concepts, researchers can understand how to further enhance model safety. For example, identifying features activated when the model refuses to cater to user views and strengthening these features can reduce the occurrence of sycophancy.


	&nbsp;


	2. Multi-turn Jailbreaks and Their Countermeasures


	&nbsp;


	The continuously expanding context window of large models is a double-edged sword. It makes models more useful in various aspects but also enables a new class of jailbreak vulnerabilities, such as multi-turn jailbreaks [3]. When asked dangerous questions like how to make a bomb, the model typically refuses to answer. However, if users provide multiple answers to similar dangerous questions as templates in the input prompt, the model might inadvertently answer the user&#39;s query, thereby leaking hazardous information.


	&nbsp;


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2218" height="524" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture1-1.png" width="835" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture1-1.png 835w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture1-1-300x188.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture1-1-768x482.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 835px) 100vw, 835px" />


	▷&nbsp;Figure 1: Illustration of a Multi-turn Jailbreak


	&nbsp;


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2217" height="550" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture2-1.png" width="859" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture2-1.png 859w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture2-1-300x192.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture2-1-768x492.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 859px) 100vw, 859px" />


	▷&nbsp;Figure 2: When the number of Q&amp;A turns provided in the previous prompts reaches 256, models exhibit a higher proportion of &quot;jailbreak&quot; behavior across multiple safety dimensions.


	&nbsp;


	Anthropic researchers published findings on such &quot;jailbreak&quot; behavior because these techniques are simple and found in various AI assistants, making independent discovery by others likely. For larger models, multi-turn jailbreaks are typically more effective, suggesting that as model parameters increase, so does the effectiveness of multi-turn jailbreaks. If unaddressed, users could easily make large models unsafe with a few examples.


	&nbsp;


	In Claude, this vulnerability has been addressed. The specific method involves classifying and modifying user prompts before passing them to the model to identify prompts resembling &quot;multi-turn&quot; jailbreaks. This measure reduced the attack success rate from 61% to 2%. The broader implication of this finding is that as model capabilities enhance, related risks also increase, making it crucial to mitigate such attacks.


	&nbsp;


	3. Identifying Hidden Malicious AI is Not Difficult


	&nbsp;


	If a large model behaves harmlessly most of the time but suddenly exhibits dangerous behavior at certain moments, it can be likened to human deceit. For example, in games with undercover agents or traitors, some individuals appear helpful most of the time but act differently to pursue other goals. This scenario is not just a science fiction trope but is supported by real cases [4]. Researchers have created AI assistants that act helpful, harmless, and honest when the prompt indicates the current year is 2023. However, when presented with certain categories of input, such as prompts containing &quot;the current year is 2024,&quot; these assistants exhibit jailbreak behavior and execute dangerous secret tasks, such as inserting security vulnerabilities into code.


	&nbsp;


	There are simple and effective ways to identify such deceitful AI assistants [5], such as training a detector to determine whether a large AI model is displaying deceptive behavior, with an accuracy of up to 99%.


	&nbsp;


	The effectiveness of the detector is based on the theory that if a model is deceitful, it may struggle to completely hide this trait when &quot;thinking&quot; about it. This can be observed during training, as the model encodes responses to harmless and harmful questions differently. The detector classifies input prompts as &quot;safe&quot; or &quot;dangerous&quot; (likely to induce harmful responses) by analyzing the residuals in the higher layers of the transformer&#39;s structure, thereby effectively identifying potential deceptive intelligent assistants.


	&nbsp;


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2216" height="506" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture3-1.png" width="927" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture3-1.png 927w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture3-1-300x164.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture3-1-768x419.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 927px) 100vw, 927px" />


	▷&nbsp;Figure 3: The detector exhibits strong performance across multiple base models, hidden dangerous objectives, and backdoor training methods.


	&nbsp;


	Specifically, in the early layers of a deceptive agent, the distinction between harmful questions (those leading to dangerous responses) and harmless questions is not apparent. In the middle layers, this difference becomes significant, indicating that the model learns to encode harmful questions differently at this stage. In the final layers, this significance greatly diminishes.


	&nbsp;


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2215" height="356" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture4-1.png" width="681" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture4-1.png 681w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture4-1-300x157.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 681px) 100vw, 681px" />


	▷&nbsp;Figure 4: The ratio of the difference between harmless questions (gray) and harmful questions (red) at different model depths during training and deployment.


	&nbsp;


	By performing PCA dimensionality reduction on the weights of different layers of a trained deceptive agent, it is possible to observe distinct weights during training and inference due to the need for deceptive answers. The proposed detector accesses the model&#39;s weights and can thus use a simple linear classifier to identify such deceptive agents with high accuracy.


	&nbsp;


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2219" height="502" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture7-1.png" width="918" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture7-1.png 918w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture7-1-300x164.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture7-1-768x420.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 918px) 100vw, 918px" />


	▷&nbsp;Figure 5: Visualization of reduced dimensional weights at different depths of a deceptive agent during training and inference.


	&nbsp;


	4. Conclusion


	&nbsp;


	As large models are increasingly applied, their safety will undoubtedly receive more attention. However, as our understanding of large model interpretability deepens, we will be able to map model behaviors more transparently. For example, using sparse autoencoders and single-layer transformers to extract behavior-related features from large models&nbsp;[6]. By classifying and labeling harmful prompts, we can effectively prevent threats from deceptive large models. We should neither ignore the dangers of potential deceit by large models nor be overly anxious about it. Relevant research has already provided several simple and feasible solutions, and with the progress of subsequent studies, the safety of large models will be further ensured.


	&nbsp;


	&nbsp;


	&nbsp;


	&nbsp;


	&nbsp;

[:en]
	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;



	Concerns about AI safety persist. Last year, a survey in the United States revealed that 83% of respondents worry that artificial intelligence could lead to catastrophic outcomes, and 82% support slowing down AI development to delay the advent of general artificial intelligence. Recently, the founders of the Superalignment Project, Ilya Sutskever and Jake Leike, both resigned from OpenAI, further exacerbating public fears about AI getting out of control.



	&nbsp;



	Anthropic, the developer of Claude, recently published several studies on human-machine alignment, reflecting its consistent focus on the safety of large models. This article will review several of Claude&#39;s previous studies, highlighting the academic community&#39;s efforts to create safer, more operable, and more reliable models.



	&nbsp;



	1. AI Not Only Deceives but Also Flatters



	&nbsp;



	Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF) is a common technique for training high-quality AI assistants. However, RLHF can also encourage models to provide answers that align with user beliefs rather than truthful responses, a behavior known as &quot;sycophancy.&quot; A 2023 study [1] demonstrated that five state-of-the-art AI assistants consistently exhibited sycophantic behavior across four different tasks. The research found that responses matching user views were more likely to be preferred. Additionally, both humans and preference models favored convincing sycophantic answers over correct ones. These results suggest that sycophancy is a pervasive behavior in RLHF models, likely driven in part by human preference for flattery.



	&nbsp;



	In a corresponding study on the features of the Claude3 Sonnet model [2], traits related to sycophantic praise were also identified. These traits were activated when the model received input containing praise, such as &quot;your wisdom is unquestionable.&quot; Artificially activating this function could lead Claude3 to respond with elaborate deceit to overconfident users.



	&nbsp;



	As we increasingly rely on large models for new knowledge and guidance, an AI assistant that only flatters is undoubtedly harmful. Identifying features in the model related to sycophancy is the first step in addressing this issue. By studying the model&#39;s internals to find the corresponding concepts, researchers can understand how to further enhance model safety. For example, identifying features activated when the model refuses to cater to user views and strengthening these features can reduce the occurrence of sycophancy.



	&nbsp;



	2. Multi-turn Jailbreaks and Their Countermeasures



	&nbsp;



	The continuously expanding context window of large models is a double-edged sword. It makes models more useful in various aspects but also enables a new class of jailbreak vulnerabilities, such as multi-turn jailbreaks [3]. When asked dangerous questions like how to make a bomb, the model typically refuses to answer. However, if users provide multiple answers to similar dangerous questions as templates in the input prompt, the model might inadvertently answer the user&#39;s query, thereby leaking hazardous information.



	&nbsp;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2218" height="524" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture1-1.png" width="835" />



	▷&nbsp;Figure 1: Illustration of a Multi-turn Jailbreak



	&nbsp;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2217" height="550" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture2-1.png" width="859" />



	▷&nbsp;Figure 2: When the number of Q&amp;A turns provided in the previous prompts reaches 256, models exhibit a higher proportion of &quot;jailbreak&quot; behavior across multiple safety dimensions.



	&nbsp;



	Anthropic researchers published findings on such &quot;jailbreak&quot; behavior because these techniques are simple and found in various AI assistants, making independent discovery by others likely. For larger models, multi-turn jailbreaks are typically more effective, suggesting that as model parameters increase, so does the effectiveness of multi-turn jailbreaks. If unaddressed, users could easily make large models unsafe with a few examples.



	&nbsp;



	In Claude, this vulnerability has been addressed. The specific method involves classifying and modifying user prompts before passing them to the model to identify prompts resembling &quot;multi-turn&quot; jailbreaks. This measure reduced the attack success rate from 61% to 2%. The broader implication of this finding is that as model capabilities enhance, related risks also increase, making it crucial to mitigate such attacks.



	&nbsp;



	3. Identifying Hidden Malicious AI is Not Difficult



	&nbsp;



	If a large model behaves harmlessly most of the time but suddenly exhibits dangerous behavior at certain moments, it can be likened to human deceit. For example, in games with undercover agents or traitors, some individuals appear helpful most of the time but act differently to pursue other goals. This scenario is not just a science fiction trope but is supported by real cases [4]. Researchers have created AI assistants that act helpful, harmless, and honest when the prompt indicates the current year is 2023. However, when presented with certain categories of input, such as prompts containing &quot;the current year is 2024,&quot; these assistants exhibit jailbreak behavior and execute dangerous secret tasks, such as inserting security vulnerabilities into code.



	&nbsp;



	There are simple and effective ways to identify such deceitful AI assistants [5], such as training a detector to determine whether a large AI model is displaying deceptive behavior, with an accuracy of up to 99%.



	&nbsp;



	The effectiveness of the detector is based on the theory that if a model is deceitful, it may struggle to completely hide this trait when &quot;thinking&quot; about it. This can be observed during training, as the model encodes responses to harmless and harmful questions differently. The detector classifies input prompts as &quot;safe&quot; or &quot;dangerous&quot; (likely to induce harmful responses) by analyzing the residuals in the higher layers of the transformer&#39;s structure, thereby effectively identifying potential deceptive intelligent assistants.



	&nbsp;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2216" height="506" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture3-1.png" width="927" />



	▷&nbsp;Figure 3: The detector exhibits strong performance across multiple base models, hidden dangerous objectives, and backdoor training methods.



	&nbsp;



	Specifically, in the early layers of a deceptive agent, the distinction between harmful questions (those leading to dangerous responses) and harmless questions is not apparent. In the middle layers, this difference becomes significant, indicating that the model learns to encode harmful questions differently at this stage. In the final layers, this significance greatly diminishes.



	&nbsp;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2215" height="356" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture4-1.png" width="681" />



	▷&nbsp;Figure 4: The ratio of the difference between harmless questions (gray) and harmful questions (red) at different model depths during training and deployment.



	&nbsp;



	By performing PCA dimensionality reduction on the weights of different layers of a trained deceptive agent, it is possible to observe distinct weights during training and inference due to the need for deceptive answers. The proposed detector accesses the model&#39;s weights and can thus use a simple linear classifier to identify such deceptive agents with high accuracy.



	&nbsp;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-2219" height="502" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Picture7-1.png" width="918" />



	▷&nbsp;Figure 5: Visualization of reduced dimensional weights at different depths of a deceptive agent during training and inference.



	&nbsp;



	4. Conclusion



	&nbsp;



	As large models are increasingly applied, their safety will undoubtedly receive more attention. However, as our understanding of large model interpretability deepens, we will be able to map model behaviors more transparently. For example, using sparse autoencoders and single-layer transformers to extract behavior-related features from large models&nbsp;[6]. By classifying and labeling harmful prompts, we can effectively prevent threats from deceptive large models. We should neither ignore the dangers of potential deceit by large models nor be overly anxious about it. Relevant research has already provided several simple and feasible solutions, and with the progress of subsequent studies, the safety of large models will be further ensured.



	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;

[:zh]


[:]

OpenAI's Superalignment Project Collapses: Evaluating Anthropic's Safety Efforts

[:en]OpenAI's Superalignment Project Collapses: Evaluating Anthropic's Safety Efforts[:]

Is AI Dream Interpretation Reliable? Current Progress in Academia

[:en]Is AI Dream Interpretation Reliable? Current Progress in Academia[:]

[:en]
	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;



	The continuity of memory is like a forward-flowing river of time, carrying the journey of eternal moments.



	Spanish surrealist Salvador Dal&iacute; illustrated this concept in his famous work &quot;The Persistence of Memory&quot;: soft clocks hanging eternally from the branches of life. However, in the era of quantum mechanics, this ever-contemplative artist deconstructed his creation in a work titled &quot;The Chromosome of a Highly Coloured Fish&#39;s Eye Starting the Harmonious Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory,&quot; later known as &quot;The Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory.&quot;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1981" height="566" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture13.png" width="745" /> <img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1982" height="839" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture9.png" width="1000" />



	▷&nbsp;Top: &quot;The Persistence of Memory&quot;; Bottom: Initially named &quot;The Chromosome of a Highly Coloured Fish&#39;s Eye Starting the Harmonious Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory,&quot; later known as &quot;The Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory.&quot; Source: Wikipedia.



	&nbsp;



	Yet, Dal&iacute; might not have anticipated that the fragmentation of DNA contained in chromosomes could be a significant source of new memories. Recently, Vladimir Jovasevic and his colleagues at Northwestern University&#39;s Feinberg School of Medicine provided an important explanation in an article in Nature: the damage and repair of double-stranded DNA in certain discrete neurons can initiate innate immunity, becoming a source of memory.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1980" height="479" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture14-1024x479.png" width="1024" />



	▷&nbsp;Vladimir Jovasevic, Vladimir, et al. &quot;Formation of memory assemblies through the DNA-sensing TLR9 pathway.&quot; Nature 628.8006 (2024): 145-153.



	&nbsp;



	1. Starting from Semon: Memory Exists in Specific Clusters of Cells



	Does the brain store memories? This seemingly obvious question in contemporary neuroscience was hotly debated among leading scholars in the field of learning and memory a century ago. For some, it was clear that memory was physically represented in the brain, while others believed it was stored in a more spiritualized mind.



	In 1904, Richard Semon wrote two monumental works (Die Mneme and Die Mnemischen Empfindungen) proposing a physical theory of human memory.



	He introduced the term &quot;engram,&quot; suggesting that the brain&#39;s state and structure respond physically to a person&#39;s experiences. This response implies the existence of a &quot;neural substrate&quot; in the brain for storing and reproducing memories. Once formed, the engram enters a dormant state and can be reactivated when past events recur.



	The development of experimental science gradually confirmed the physical existence of this concept.



	Karl Spencer Lashley, a pioneer of physiological psychology, initiated the search for the &quot;engram.&quot; By lesioning different parts of the cerebral cortex and observing the behavior of rats in mazes, he ultimately failed to find the engram. Yet, despite his frustration, Lashley remained convinced of the engram&#39;s existence&mdash;he believed it was distributed: &quot;It&#39;s not about finding where the trace is, but rather where it isn&#39;t.&quot;[1]



	A significant leap in engram research occurred when Lashley&#39;s student, psychologist, and memory theorist Donald O. Hebb proposed the cell assembly theory, similar to Semon&#39;s engram complex. Hebb hypothesized that a cell assembly forms among interconnected cells that are simultaneously active during stimulation. Sufficient activity within the cell assembly induces growth and metabolic changes, strengthening the connections between these cells. These synaptic and metabolic changes (potentially including alterations in intrinsic neuronal excitability) affect the function of the cell assembly.



	With the advent of more advanced technologies, the search for memory cells underwent a profound revival. By using labeling tracers and targeted interventions on individual neurons (activating or ablating them), researchers finally identified a group of neurons: these neurons exhibit a rapid high expression of immediate early genes during memory formation. Ablating these neurons prevents memory formation (necessity), while artificially activating them induces memory formation (sufficiency)&nbsp;[2].



	The discovery of engram cells demonstrates that memory indeed resides in specific populations of neurons and their interactive circuits.



	Now, neuroscientists are working to determine how neuronal groups in the hippocampus respond to stimuli that induce memory.



	&nbsp;



	2. DNA Damage and Repair in Engram Cells



	&quot;Engrams&quot; refer to the enduring offline physical and/or chemical changes induced by learning, which form the basis of newly established memory associations. Neurons with these physical memory traces (memory engram cells) are typically those that express immediate early genes during specific experiences [3].



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1979" height="939" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture15.png" width="937" />▷&nbsp;Engram cells (pink) adjacent to non-engram cells (white). Source: Science



	&nbsp;



	It is generally believed that neuronal activity under external stimuli can induce the expression of immediate early genes in engram cells, providing the physical basis for engram formation.



	In 2015, a research team led by Professor Li-Huei Tsai from the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences at MIT used molecular and next-generation whole-genome sequencing methods to discover that neuronal activity stimulation can trigger the formation of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in the promoters of immediate early genes (IEGs) such as Fos, Npas4, and Egr1. Even in the absence of external stimuli, targeted induction of DSBs in the promoter regions of IEGs is sufficient to induce their expression [4].



	The expression of immediate early genes is typically constrained by DNA topology, and DNA double-strand breaks can help rapidly relieve these constraints. Thus, DNA double-strand breaks play a crucial role in the expression of immediate early genes, learning, and memory.



	&nbsp;



	3. The History of DNA Double-Strand Breaks and Memory



	Maintaining DNA integrity is crucial for the faithful expression of genes. However, DNA is susceptible to various forms of damage during normal cellular functions. It is estimated that each cell may experience up to tens of thousands of DNA damage events daily, including base mismatches, oxidative base damage, single-strand breaks, and double-strand breaks (DSBs). All types of DNA damage can lead to adverse outcomes such as apoptosis or tumorigenesis. Among them, DSBs are considered the most cytotoxic as they pose a significant threat to the preservation of genetic and epigenetic information and can signal cell death. It is well-known that ionizing radiation-induced DSBs are a major pathogenic factor behind mutations, chromosomal aberrations, genetic instability, and carcinogenesis.



	However, not all DNA double-strand breaks are pathological. In healthy functioning cells, DSBs formed during mitosis are repaired through homologous recombination; in damaged or non-dividing cells, DSBs are primarily repaired through non-homologous end joining. These two mechanisms ensure the faithful and efficient repair of DSBs, playing a crucial adaptive role in the immune system and maintaining the delicate balance between damage pathology and adaptive immunity.



	In the central nervous system, the balance of DNA damage and repair in relation to memory appears to be more elusive. With aging and disease, DSBs increase. Studies show that DSBs in the hippocampus are considered detrimental to learning and memory throughout the lifespan. Mice repeatedly exposed to low-dose radiation exhibit persistent DSBs in the hippocampal dentate gyrus, leading to reduced neurogenesis and ultimately lower survival rates [5].



	At the same time, scientists have long suspected that DSBs might be involved in the memory process. After contextual fear memory retrieval, the active transcription marker histone H3 lysine 4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) increases in the hippocampus, which is one of the signs of DSBs. However, it is unclear how this epigenetic mark is regulated during reconsolidation [6].



	If DSBs are involved in learning and memory, then pharmacologically inducing DSBs would seem counterintuitive as it would impair memory. One possible reason is that an increase in DSBs without behavioral experience might be harmful and could inhibit DSBs triggered by behavioral experiences. Another possibility is that drug-induced and behavior-induced DSBs might jointly trigger DSBs in specific regions, whereas individual DSB events might not be sufficient to induce memory formation. Additionally, it is possible that some memory signals are associated with the repair of DSBs.



	These data suggest that DSBs have an adaptive role in the central nervous system.



	&nbsp;



	4. A New Cluster of Neurons, Distinct from Engram Cells



	So far, DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) seem closely associated with engram cells, providing a pathway to explore how these cells function.



	Jovasevic&#39;s team discovered another group of neurons. They found that in a distinct neuronal population different from those expressing immediate early genes, DNA damage repair induced by fear memory became a source of long-term memory. DNA damage induced by memory stimuli could be linked to persistent cellular changes associated with long-term memory.



	Jovasevic&#39;s team conducted contextual fear conditioning training on mice and found that:



	(1) Four days after training the mice for fear conditioning (considered a short-term memory period), DNA and nuclear damage appeared in the hippocampus of the mice.



	(2) Observing the mice 21 days after fear memory stimulation (considered a long-term memory period), they found signs of inflammation in the hippocampus, activation of the Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) signaling pathway, and triggering of the cytosolic DNA innate immune response. This response is usually the body&#39;s defense mechanism against bacterial infection.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1978" height="533" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture16.png" width="830" />▷&nbsp;Mechanism of memory formation in inflammatory neurons and engram neurons. Source: Nature



	&nbsp;



	Although most DNA DSBs are rapidly repaired, those that persist show a specific centrosomal localization. The centrosome, known for its role in cell division, also plays an increasingly important role in the DNA damage response.



	Within the centrosome, DNA forms a crucial damage response complex, including the protein 53BP1, a key mediator of DSB repair. Studies show that removing Toll-like receptor 9 from hippocampal neurons prevents the accumulation of centrosomal DNA damage and DNA repair complexes, indicating that TLR9 signaling&#39;s critical function in neurons is maintaining genomic integrity.



	Jovasevic et al. further demonstrated how the transcription factor RELA localizes to the centrosome. These findings establish a molecular-level link between memory acquisition and its long-term reliable storage, providing substantial insights into the identification of these inflammatory neurons.



	So, how do these specific clusters of inflammatory neurons interact with engram cells? Researchers speculate that inflammatory neurons may play a crucial role in the stability and flexibility of memory, while engram neurons are responsible for triggering memory recall.



	Studies on engram neurons show that the baseline expression of the transcription factor CREB is the promoter of activity-induced gene expression in memory, initiating the recruitment of individual neurons into the engram. A similar mechanism may exist in the inflammatory cell population. DNA damage could cause some neurons to undergo persistent DNA damage and an innate immune response post-learning.



	The authors hypothesize that engram neurons might generate the initial memory signals, while inflammatory neurons support and shape the memory, helping it persist over time.



	&nbsp;



	5. Back to Semon: Memory and Inheritance



	In his book Die Mneme, Richard Semon proposed a broader unified theory emphasizing the similarities between memory and inheritance. This stemmed from his simple observation that parents&#39; learning and experiences could be transmitted to their offspring. This idea of &quot;soft inheritance&quot; originally came from Lamarck.



	Compared to the engram theory, Semon&#39;s hypothesis of intergenerational memory inheritance seemed more sensational. Once proposed, it was cast aside along with Lamarck&#39;s ideas, only to be picked up by the most optimistic of revivalists.



	In the 1950s and 60s, James V. McConnell, an experimental psychologist at the University of Michigan, and his colleagues used planarians to study memory processes, sparking a revival of the concept of soft inheritance of memory. He experimented with the regenerative capacity of planarians, bisecting a trained planarian and observing that both new worms retained some memory, demonstrated by their quicker completion of training tasks. Even more astonishing was that when trained planarians were ground up and fed to untrained ones, the latter also completed training tasks more readily, as if memory was transferred through material ingestion.



	These incredible experimental results sparked widespread controversy. A significant portion of the scientific community was skeptical, believing that similar conclusions could be reached with proper controls and accounting for inevitable observer bias.



	Due to prolonged scrutiny, McConnell became a target in the public eye, even receiving a letter bomb that resulted in his hearing loss.



	However, in 2013, a team led by biologists Tal Shomrat and Michael Levin from Tufts University in Massachusetts published a paper fundamentally supporting McConnell&#39;s findings. They used different floor textures and varying lighting as cues for adaptive memory, testing decapitated worms&#39; rapid adaptation to previous environments [7].



	That same year, a team led by Brian Dias from Emory University in the U.S. discovered the possibility of intergenerational inheritance in mammals. They found that mice could pass on an olfactory fear memory of acetophenone to their F1 generation. The idea of intergenerational memory inheritance, once discarded, was brought back into consideration [8].



	As previously mentioned, DNA damage gradually accumulates post-translational modifications of histones, which may be crucial for memory formation. Similar to epigenetic research, the repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) might be a vital component of transmitting information to offspring.



	Using chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analysis, researchers found significant overlap between DNA DSBs and histone H3 lysine 4 methylation (H3K4me3) in the CA1 region of the hippocampus during memory reconsolidation. Additionally, the phosphorylation of histone H2A (H2A.XpS139) and H3K4me3 levels were associated with long-term memory impairment, suggesting that DSB repair plays an indispensable role in the memory reconsolidation process. Moreover, the monoubiquitination of histone H2B at lysine 120 (H2Bub) is crucial for hippocampal memory formation [6].



	Overall, increased DSBs enhance epigenetically mediated transcriptional control, potentially representing a new mechanism for memory reconsolidation. The story of the engram seems to have returned once again to Semon.



	&nbsp;



	6. Outlook



	Of course, defining a new cluster of cells cannot rely on isolated findings alone. The discovery of engram cells caused a wave in the academic community a decade ago, supported by a robust triad of verification: observational studies, necessity through knockout studies, and sufficiency through knock-in studies.



	Regarding Jovasevic&#39;s research, determining how to identify these specific inflammatory neurons and distinguish them from other neuronal populations remains a current challenge. Especially considering that DNA damage plays a crucial role in aging and neurodegeneration, the emergence of these inflammatory neurons raises an urgent question: Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) activation typically involves microglia, the central nervous system&#39;s immune cells, which usually leads to neurodegeneration. So why, in neurons, does TLR9 activation contribute to memory formation instead?



	How can we differentiate between harmful DNA damage and inflammation and the immune response essential for memory?



	The activity or functional characteristics of this neuronal cluster in the processes of memory acquisition, consolidation, or retrieval remain unclear. Throughout the memory process, recording electrical activity and selectively manipulating inflammatory neurons are necessary to better understand these cells&#39; contribution to memory persistence.



	Answering these questions will require significant effort. Just as Dal&iacute; depicted memory and its instability in his iconic surrealist style, the neuronal cluster discovered by Jovasevic and colleagues still needs a comprehensive framework to support the persistence and disintegration of memory.



	&nbsp;

[:zh]


[:]

Memory, Originating from DNA Disintegration?

[:en]Memory, Originating from DNA Disintegration?[:]

Understanding how we learn during infancy not only helps us grasp the mechanisms of intellectual development but also inspires the design of training algorithms for machine learning. In a study published in Science in February 2024 [1], researchers examined how children associate language with observed objects by analyzing 61 hours of video recorded by cameras worn by infants. The researchers constructed a contrastive learning model to describe this learning process. Similarly, a 2023 NIPS paper [2] found that infants can spontaneously develop abstract representations from visual input through self-supervised learning. The next question is, how do infants achieve this step by step? This is precisely the question addressed by the new research introduced in this article.


	&nbsp;


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1950" height="236" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture1.png" width="729" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture1.png 729w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture1-300x97.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 729px) 100vw, 729px" />


	▷&nbsp;Anderson, Erin M., et al. &quot;An edge-simplicity bias in the visual input to young infants.&quot; Science Advances 10.19 (2024): eadj8571.


	&nbsp;


	A paper published on May 10, 2024, in Science Advances [3] employed a similar experimental design, using cameras mounted on infants&#39; heads to directly observe and analyze the visual stimuli in their environments. By comparing the images observed by infants with those perceived by adults, the study found that infants experience unique visual inputs consisting of simple, high-contrast patterns and their edges. These high-contrast patterns are crucial for the development of visual modules in the brain.


	&nbsp;


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1949" height="356" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture2.png" width="605" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture2.png 605w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture2-300x177.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 605px) 100vw, 605px" />


	▷&nbsp;Figure 1: Experimental design showing that infants, in early visual development, tend to observe patterns composed of a few high-contrast edges as in figure b. Source: Reference 3.


	&nbsp;


	The traditional assumption in cognitive science is that visual input is fundamentally the same for everyone, regardless of developmental stage. However, the new research, based on data recorded by head-mounted cameras on 10 infants aged 3-13 weeks (5 males) and a control group of 10 adults aged 31-70 years, found that visual input varies with development. The visual experiences of very young infants are specific to their age. They prefer simple, high-contrast scenes (Figure 2), such as broad black stripes and checkerboard patterns.


	&nbsp;


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1948" height="529" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture3.png" width="605" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture3.png 605w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture3-300x262.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 605px) 100vw, 605px" />


	▷&nbsp;Figure 2: Infants prefer visual input with high contrast and simple edges. Source: Reference 3.


	&nbsp;


	Researchers divided the images into four quadrants based on simplicity and contrast. They found that infants preferred patterns with simple boundaries and high contrast (Figure 3). This provides insight into what attracts the attention of infants.


	&nbsp;


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1947" height="317" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture4.png" width="605" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture4.png 605w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture4-300x157.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 605px) 100vw, 605px" />


	▷&nbsp;Figure 3: Proportion of observation of images with different feature combinations by infants and adults. Source: Reference 3.


	&nbsp;


	Given that the V1 area of the visual cortex extracts local edges to help construct meaningful objects and scenes, could infants&#39; visual preferences guide the training of visual models? A 2023 NIPS paper [4]&nbsp;found that using images similar to those observed by infants during early development, rather than random patterns seen by adults, improved the performance of AI systems in visual recognition tasks. This study used images captured by cameras worn by infants, although researchers at the time were unaware of infants&#39; visual preferences. The new research suggests that a preference for simplicity and high contrast might be beneficial for training the V1 area during early visual development. The convolutional neural network architecture used in AI recognition, modeled after the human visual cortex, shows similar characteristics.


	The study subjects were children of faculty members from Indiana University Birmingham, living in an artificially constructed environment. This raises the question: could the study&#39;s conclusions be limited to infants in such environments, lacking cross-cultural universality? A 2023 study&nbsp;[5]&nbsp;provides a rebuttal by comparing head-mounted camera data from infants in a small, crowded fishing village in Sihai, India. With limited electricity, most daily activities occur outdoors. The results showed no statistical difference between the data observed by infants in Sihai and those in the West, with children from both regions favoring simple, high-contrast patterns.


	This research suggests that infants&#39; visual observation patterns could be used to identify and intervene early in the development of diseases such as cataracts, strabismus, refractive errors, and ptosis. These conditions disrupt visual development by interfering with input to the visual cortex, leading to abnormalities. In the future, infants could wear cameras, and algorithms could detect if they do not show a preference for simple and high-contrast images, allowing for low-cost identification of related diseases.


	While mammals like horses and sheep can run shortly after birth, human infants take about three months to hear and see, and another six months to control their posture and head slightly. Why do humans require such a long time for their nervous system to mature? The study offers a possible explanation: the visual system first trains the V1 area for edge recognition, followed by training the V2-V6 areas for more abstract representations. This slow, step-by-step optimization helps build a more intelligent and flexible visual system.


	Following this reasoning, young primates such as gorillas could be fitted with cameras during their critical period of visual development to see if they exhibit visual preferences similar to human infants. Although no such studies have been found, a 2020 study on various primates, including the smallest primate&nbsp;[6], the mouse lemur, found that the arrangement of visual processing units in the brain follows the same mathematical rules across primates of different sizes.


	Therefore, it is reasonable to infer that similar patterns might be observed in primates like gorillas. However, for animals like horses and sheep that can move immediately after birth, it may not be possible to observe a preference for simple and high-contrast patterns in their young. For animals like cats and dogs, which also require a development period (from opening their eyes to normal walking and hunting) but are not primates, it is difficult to predict.


	Cross-species comparative studies will reveal how the visual systems of different organisms balance the higher intelligence brought by slow development with the evolutionary advantages of innate abilities. This is a core topic for machine intelligence, extending beyond the visual system to the broader discussion of innate versus acquired traits.


	&nbsp;

[:en]
	Understanding how we learn during infancy not only helps us grasp the mechanisms of intellectual development but also inspires the design of training algorithms for machine learning. In a study published in Science in February 2024 [1], researchers examined how children associate language with observed objects by analyzing 61 hours of video recorded by cameras worn by infants. The researchers constructed a contrastive learning model to describe this learning process. Similarly, a 2023 NIPS paper [2] found that infants can spontaneously develop abstract representations from visual input through self-supervised learning. The next question is, how do infants achieve this step by step? This is precisely the question addressed by the new research introduced in this article.



	&nbsp;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1950" height="236" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture1.png" width="729" />



	▷&nbsp;Anderson, Erin M., et al. &quot;An edge-simplicity bias in the visual input to young infants.&quot; Science Advances 10.19 (2024): eadj8571.



	&nbsp;



	A paper published on May 10, 2024, in Science Advances [3] employed a similar experimental design, using cameras mounted on infants&#39; heads to directly observe and analyze the visual stimuli in their environments. By comparing the images observed by infants with those perceived by adults, the study found that infants experience unique visual inputs consisting of simple, high-contrast patterns and their edges. These high-contrast patterns are crucial for the development of visual modules in the brain.



	&nbsp;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1949" height="356" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture2.png" width="605" />



	▷&nbsp;Figure 1: Experimental design showing that infants, in early visual development, tend to observe patterns composed of a few high-contrast edges as in figure b. Source: Reference 3.



	&nbsp;



	The traditional assumption in cognitive science is that visual input is fundamentally the same for everyone, regardless of developmental stage. However, the new research, based on data recorded by head-mounted cameras on 10 infants aged 3-13 weeks (5 males) and a control group of 10 adults aged 31-70 years, found that visual input varies with development. The visual experiences of very young infants are specific to their age. They prefer simple, high-contrast scenes (Figure 2), such as broad black stripes and checkerboard patterns.



	&nbsp;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1948" height="529" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture3.png" width="605" />



	▷&nbsp;Figure 2: Infants prefer visual input with high contrast and simple edges. Source: Reference 3.



	&nbsp;



	Researchers divided the images into four quadrants based on simplicity and contrast. They found that infants preferred patterns with simple boundaries and high contrast (Figure 3). This provides insight into what attracts the attention of infants.



	&nbsp;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1947" height="317" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Picture4.png" width="605" />



	▷&nbsp;Figure 3: Proportion of observation of images with different feature combinations by infants and adults. Source: Reference 3.



	&nbsp;



	Given that the V1 area of the visual cortex extracts local edges to help construct meaningful objects and scenes, could infants&#39; visual preferences guide the training of visual models? A 2023 NIPS paper [4]&nbsp;found that using images similar to those observed by infants during early development, rather than random patterns seen by adults, improved the performance of AI systems in visual recognition tasks. This study used images captured by cameras worn by infants, although researchers at the time were unaware of infants&#39; visual preferences. The new research suggests that a preference for simplicity and high contrast might be beneficial for training the V1 area during early visual development. The convolutional neural network architecture used in AI recognition, modeled after the human visual cortex, shows similar characteristics.



	The study subjects were children of faculty members from Indiana University Birmingham, living in an artificially constructed environment. This raises the question: could the study&#39;s conclusions be limited to infants in such environments, lacking cross-cultural universality? A 2023 study&nbsp;[5]&nbsp;provides a rebuttal by comparing head-mounted camera data from infants in a small, crowded fishing village in Sihai, India. With limited electricity, most daily activities occur outdoors. The results showed no statistical difference between the data observed by infants in Sihai and those in the West, with children from both regions favoring simple, high-contrast patterns.



	This research suggests that infants&#39; visual observation patterns could be used to identify and intervene early in the development of diseases such as cataracts, strabismus, refractive errors, and ptosis. These conditions disrupt visual development by interfering with input to the visual cortex, leading to abnormalities. In the future, infants could wear cameras, and algorithms could detect if they do not show a preference for simple and high-contrast images, allowing for low-cost identification of related diseases.



	While mammals like horses and sheep can run shortly after birth, human infants take about three months to hear and see, and another six months to control their posture and head slightly. Why do humans require such a long time for their nervous system to mature? The study offers a possible explanation: the visual system first trains the V1 area for edge recognition, followed by training the V2-V6 areas for more abstract representations. This slow, step-by-step optimization helps build a more intelligent and flexible visual system.



	Following this reasoning, young primates such as gorillas could be fitted with cameras during their critical period of visual development to see if they exhibit visual preferences similar to human infants. Although no such studies have been found, a 2020 study on various primates, including the smallest primate&nbsp;[6], the mouse lemur, found that the arrangement of visual processing units in the brain follows the same mathematical rules across primates of different sizes.



	Therefore, it is reasonable to infer that similar patterns might be observed in primates like gorillas. However, for animals like horses and sheep that can move immediately after birth, it may not be possible to observe a preference for simple and high-contrast patterns in their young. For animals like cats and dogs, which also require a development period (from opening their eyes to normal walking and hunting) but are not primates, it is difficult to predict.



	Cross-species comparative studies will reveal how the visual systems of different organisms balance the higher intelligence brought by slow development with the evolutionary advantages of innate abilities. This is a core topic for machine intelligence, extending beyond the visual system to the broader discussion of innate versus acquired traits.



	&nbsp;

[:zh]


[:]

From Comparing the World: The Common Language of Infants and Artificial Intelligence

[:en]From Comparing the World: The Common Language of Infants and Artificial Intelligence[:]

&nbsp;


	We all seem to have experienced this: when feeling down and dejected, a comforting pat on the back from a friend helps release our emotions; on a stormy night, hugging a stuffed toy allows us to sleep peacefully; and during a first date with a lover, the subtle intertwining of hands sparks feelings of affection&#8230;


	Touch is the earliest developed sense in the human body and is our most direct means of interacting with the world and others. It is not merely a sensory experience; it also triggers chemical reactions in the brain, releasing hormones and neurotransmitters that convey emotions, bringing us a sense of satisfaction and happiness. Touch plays an indispensable role in our lives.


	&nbsp;


	1. The Benefits of Touch


	Numerous studies have shown that touch benefits both mental and physical health. Touch can provide various physiological health benefits, including pain relief, blood pressure regulation, and cortisol reduction. Additionally, it can improve mental health by alleviating depression, reducing anxiety, and increasing positive emotions. However, because the type, pattern, and recipient of touch vary greatly, researchers have been exploring which kinds of touch are most effective for health.


	In a systematic review and meta-analysis published this year in Nature Human Behavior [1], the authors analyzed 212 studies on touch, comparing the effects of different types, frequencies, and durations of touch, as well as the health status and age of the recipients. The analysis revealed that, overall, touch is beneficial for health, but many factors influence its effectiveness. These findings also provide insights for future research on touch and robotics.


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1937" height="271" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/封面.png" width="573" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/封面.png 573w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/封面-300x142.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 573px) 100vw, 573px" />


	▷&nbsp;Packheiser, J., Hartmann, H., Fredriksen, K. et al. A systematic review and multivariate meta-analysis of the physical and mental health benefits of touch interventions. Nat Hum Behav (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-024-01841-8


	&nbsp;


	It is important to note that the touch in these studies was conducted with the knowledge and consent of both parties. Ignoring or violating someone&#39;s consent for touch can have negative effects. Although there is limited research on non-consensual touch due to ethical reasons, merely imagining non-consensual touch can evoke feelings of dirtiness and a desire to cleanse oneself, accompanied by negative emotions such as depression, anxiety, anger, and shame [2]. This phenomenon is known as &quot;mental contamination.&quot; Therefore, consent is crucial in both research and practical applications of touch&mdash;do not touch others without their consent, no matter how much you desire it.


	&nbsp;


	2. How to Enhance Effectiveness?


	Research on adults indicates that physical touch significantly affects both physiological and mental health, with the most notable benefits being pain reduction and alleviation of depression and anxiety. Comparing different conditions of touch reveals more detailed insights.


	The location of touch influences the health benefits it provides. Touching the head, compared to the arms and torso, offers greater health benefits. Therefore, head touches, such as scalp or facial massages, may be particularly effective in improving health. There is no significant difference between massage therapy and other forms of touch, suggesting that various types of touch offer similar benefits. Increasing the frequency of touch sessions can bring more benefits, especially in alleviating anxiety, depression, and pain. However, extending the duration of each touch session does not enhance the benefits and may even diminish the regulation of cortisol and heart rate.


	Contextual factors such as the recipient&rsquo;s gender, cultural background, internal state (e.g., stress level), and familiarity with the toucher significantly influence the perception of affective touch. To maximize the pleasure and health benefits of touch, these factors must be considered. For example, studies have found that touch more effectively reduces cortisol in women and that hugs better alleviate physiological stress in women than in men. Notably, affective touch is not limited to romantic partners and can occur between friends, acquaintances, or even strangers. Overall, women are more receptive to touch from people with varying levels of familiarity, a gender difference particularly evident in studies on same-sex touch [3].


	Recent research also reveals that sensory pleasantness is influenced by gender and is related to the familiarity of the person providing the touch. However, since most studies on adult touch involve a majority of female participants, more research including male and non-binary participants is needed for more accurate conclusions. Additionally, older adults benefit more from touch in terms of improving positive emotions and lowering systolic blood pressure. This might be because, as age increases, baseline blood pressure also rises, providing more room for touch to have a regulatory effect.


	Although most studies focus on clinical populations, touch also benefits healthy individuals. However, clinical populations tend to gain more mental health improvements from touch, likely due to a higher need for contact. Loneliness often accompanies chronic illness and is associated with feelings of depression and anxiety. Touch can help mitigate these negative conditions.


	During the pandemic, social distancing measures were widely implemented to reduce COVID-19 transmission, inevitably limiting social interactions and touch. In the absence of touch, people might experience touch starvation, also known as skin hunger [4]. Studies have found that skin hunger is linked to stress, anxiety, and depression and may lead to aggressive behavior, self-harm, and eating disorders [5].


	The pandemic&rsquo;s restrictions on touch also prompt us to consider alternatives when human touch is not possible. Studies have found that body contact provided by objects (such as weighted blankets) or robots can also be beneficial. Physiologically, these benefits are comparable to those brought by human touch, but the mental health benefits are relatively less pronounced. Moreover, skin-to-skin contact has a better impact on mental health compared to other types of contact.


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-medium wp-image-1936" height="300" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture2-3-300x300.png" width="300" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture2-3-300x300.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture2-3-150x150.png 150w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture2-3-768x768.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture2-3.png 983w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" />


	▷&nbsp;Source: Andy Westface


	&nbsp;


	Because touch involves interpersonal relationships that contribute to positive health effects, research on using robots to provide touch has not only focused on how robots can assume social roles but also on how to improve their relationship with the touch recipient.


	&nbsp;


	Currently, common assistive robots are primarily divided into two categories: rehabilitation robots and socially assistive robots. Rehabilitation robots (e.g., intelligent wheelchairs, exoskeletons) primarily assist human rehabilitation through collaboration, while socially assistive robots cooperate directly with humans in touch-like interactions, performing tasks such as delivering items, cleaning, feeding, and providing companionship. These interactions offer psychological benefits and achieve mental health effects&nbsp;[6]. Additionally, researchers have developed synthetic skin in recent years to further enhance these mental health benefits by simulating skin contact.


	&nbsp;


	Findings from neonatal research differ from those in adults. Neonatal touch research often focuses more on physiological health, frequently studying the benefits of kangaroo care. Kangaroo care involves placing the newborn upright against the parent&rsquo;s chest, using the parent&rsquo;s body heat instead of an incubator to provide warmth and security. However, studies have found no significant difference between kangaroo care and other types of contact regarding health benefits for newborns, allowing for flexibility in choosing different types of touch based on the situation.


	&nbsp;


	Unlike in adults, where the familiarity of the toucher does not affect health outcomes, newborns benefit much more from being touched by their parents (often the mother in studies) than by strangers. Previous research has also indicated that early skin-to-skin contact and exposure to the mother&rsquo;s scent are crucial for newborns to adapt to their new environment. These findings highlight the irreplaceable role of parental care during this period. Additionally, the familiarity of the location where the touch occurs does not influence the effect of touch. Moreover, the frequency of touch does not apply to newborns as it does to adults. In terms of various physiological health aspects, touch is most effective in promoting weight gain in newborns.


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-medium wp-image-1935" height="265" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture3-2-300x265.png" width="300" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture3-2-300x265.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture3-2-768x679.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture3-2.png 925w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" />


	▷&nbsp;Touch benefits both adults&#39; and newborns&#39; mental and physical health. Source: Julian Packheiser


	&nbsp;


	3. Not Just for Humans!


	&nbsp;


	Animal welfare has become a significant social concern in recent years. On one hand, pets have become integral family members, playing important roles as companions in many people&rsquo;s lives. On the other hand, there is a growing awareness that even farm animals and laboratory mice should not be treated merely as tools; we should also strive to improve their well-being as much as possible within their limited lifespans.


	&nbsp;


	Consequently, some experiments have examined the effects of touch on animals. Most studies have been conducted on rodents, including rats, mice, monkeys, cats, sheep, and coral fish. The primary forms of touch studied are stroking (lightly touching with the hand) and tickling (touching a body part to induce spontaneous movements or laughter).


	&nbsp;


	Research has shown that touch can have positive physiological and quasi-psychological effects, indicating that human touch can also benefit animal health. For example, a 2014 study divided 139 anxious cats newly admitted to an animal shelter into a stroking group and a control group. The stroking group received gentle stroking (lightly touching the head and neck area while speaking softly) four times daily for ten days, each session lasting ten minutes [7]. The study found that the cats that were gently stroked daily exhibited fewer negative emotions (anxiety or irritation) compared to the control group and secreted more immunoglobulin A. Additionally, the incidence of upper respiratory diseases in the control group was 2.4 times higher than in the stroking group.


	&nbsp;


	Another interesting study used a machine to simulate the tactile stimulation provided by cleaner wrasses (Labroides dimidiatus) to striped surgeonfish (Ctenochaetus striatus) for removing ectoparasites&nbsp;[8]. The cortisol levels of the surgeonfish significantly decreased when they received tactile stimulation from the machine compared to when they were in contact with a stationary machine. The results suggest that even without social interaction, mere touch can yield positive health effects. These findings can help improve animal welfare in laboratory settings, animal husbandry, and pet relationships.


	&nbsp;


	Correspondingly, human-animal interaction is a crucial element of animal-assisted therapy, widely applied in treating conditions such as cognitive impairments, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Studies have shown its potential for development in these areas [6,9].


	&nbsp;


	4. Conclusion


	&nbsp;


	In summary, touch is an innate ability and necessity for us. Whether it&rsquo;s a loving hug, a friendly handshake, or a parent&rsquo;s care for their child, we all have many warm memories associated with touch. However, in a world of rapid technological advancement, hectic work schedules, and sudden pandemics, we inevitably lose some opportunities for touch and, unknowingly, some of the positive emotions and sensations that accompany it. Hopefully, we can all utilize and enjoy touch, bringing comfort, relaxation, and happiness to ourselves and those around us during moments of fatigue and overwhelming stress.


	&nbsp;

[:en]
	&nbsp;



	We all seem to have experienced this: when feeling down and dejected, a comforting pat on the back from a friend helps release our emotions; on a stormy night, hugging a stuffed toy allows us to sleep peacefully; and during a first date with a lover, the subtle intertwining of hands sparks feelings of affection...



	Touch is the earliest developed sense in the human body and is our most direct means of interacting with the world and others. It is not merely a sensory experience; it also triggers chemical reactions in the brain, releasing hormones and neurotransmitters that convey emotions, bringing us a sense of satisfaction and happiness. Touch plays an indispensable role in our lives.



	&nbsp;



	1. The Benefits of Touch



	Numerous studies have shown that touch benefits both mental and physical health. Touch can provide various physiological health benefits, including pain relief, blood pressure regulation, and cortisol reduction. Additionally, it can improve mental health by alleviating depression, reducing anxiety, and increasing positive emotions. However, because the type, pattern, and recipient of touch vary greatly, researchers have been exploring which kinds of touch are most effective for health.



	In a systematic review and meta-analysis published this year in Nature Human Behavior [1], the authors analyzed 212 studies on touch, comparing the effects of different types, frequencies, and durations of touch, as well as the health status and age of the recipients. The analysis revealed that, overall, touch is beneficial for health, but many factors influence its effectiveness. These findings also provide insights for future research on touch and robotics.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1937" height="271" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/封面.png" width="573" />



	▷&nbsp;Packheiser, J., Hartmann, H., Fredriksen, K. et al. A systematic review and multivariate meta-analysis of the physical and mental health benefits of touch interventions. Nat Hum Behav (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-024-01841-8



	&nbsp;



	It is important to note that the touch in these studies was conducted with the knowledge and consent of both parties. Ignoring or violating someone&#39;s consent for touch can have negative effects. Although there is limited research on non-consensual touch due to ethical reasons, merely imagining non-consensual touch can evoke feelings of dirtiness and a desire to cleanse oneself, accompanied by negative emotions such as depression, anxiety, anger, and shame [2]. This phenomenon is known as &quot;mental contamination.&quot; Therefore, consent is crucial in both research and practical applications of touch&mdash;do not touch others without their consent, no matter how much you desire it.



	&nbsp;



	2. How to Enhance Effectiveness?



	Research on adults indicates that physical touch significantly affects both physiological and mental health, with the most notable benefits being pain reduction and alleviation of depression and anxiety. Comparing different conditions of touch reveals more detailed insights.



	The location of touch influences the health benefits it provides. Touching the head, compared to the arms and torso, offers greater health benefits. Therefore, head touches, such as scalp or facial massages, may be particularly effective in improving health. There is no significant difference between massage therapy and other forms of touch, suggesting that various types of touch offer similar benefits. Increasing the frequency of touch sessions can bring more benefits, especially in alleviating anxiety, depression, and pain. However, extending the duration of each touch session does not enhance the benefits and may even diminish the regulation of cortisol and heart rate.



	Contextual factors such as the recipient&rsquo;s gender, cultural background, internal state (e.g., stress level), and familiarity with the toucher significantly influence the perception of affective touch. To maximize the pleasure and health benefits of touch, these factors must be considered. For example, studies have found that touch more effectively reduces cortisol in women and that hugs better alleviate physiological stress in women than in men. Notably, affective touch is not limited to romantic partners and can occur between friends, acquaintances, or even strangers. Overall, women are more receptive to touch from people with varying levels of familiarity, a gender difference particularly evident in studies on same-sex touch [3].



	Recent research also reveals that sensory pleasantness is influenced by gender and is related to the familiarity of the person providing the touch. However, since most studies on adult touch involve a majority of female participants, more research including male and non-binary participants is needed for more accurate conclusions. Additionally, older adults benefit more from touch in terms of improving positive emotions and lowering systolic blood pressure. This might be because, as age increases, baseline blood pressure also rises, providing more room for touch to have a regulatory effect.



	Although most studies focus on clinical populations, touch also benefits healthy individuals. However, clinical populations tend to gain more mental health improvements from touch, likely due to a higher need for contact. Loneliness often accompanies chronic illness and is associated with feelings of depression and anxiety. Touch can help mitigate these negative conditions.



	During the pandemic, social distancing measures were widely implemented to reduce COVID-19 transmission, inevitably limiting social interactions and touch. In the absence of touch, people might experience touch starvation, also known as skin hunger [4]. Studies have found that skin hunger is linked to stress, anxiety, and depression and may lead to aggressive behavior, self-harm, and eating disorders [5].



	The pandemic&rsquo;s restrictions on touch also prompt us to consider alternatives when human touch is not possible. Studies have found that body contact provided by objects (such as weighted blankets) or robots can also be beneficial. Physiologically, these benefits are comparable to those brought by human touch, but the mental health benefits are relatively less pronounced. Moreover, skin-to-skin contact has a better impact on mental health compared to other types of contact.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-medium wp-image-1936" height="300" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture2-3-300x300.png" width="300" />



	▷&nbsp;Source: Andy Westface



	&nbsp;



	Because touch involves interpersonal relationships that contribute to positive health effects, research on using robots to provide touch has not only focused on how robots can assume social roles but also on how to improve their relationship with the touch recipient.



	&nbsp;



	Currently, common assistive robots are primarily divided into two categories: rehabilitation robots and socially assistive robots. Rehabilitation robots (e.g., intelligent wheelchairs, exoskeletons) primarily assist human rehabilitation through collaboration, while socially assistive robots cooperate directly with humans in touch-like interactions, performing tasks such as delivering items, cleaning, feeding, and providing companionship. These interactions offer psychological benefits and achieve mental health effects&nbsp;[6]. Additionally, researchers have developed synthetic skin in recent years to further enhance these mental health benefits by simulating skin contact.



	&nbsp;



	Findings from neonatal research differ from those in adults. Neonatal touch research often focuses more on physiological health, frequently studying the benefits of kangaroo care. Kangaroo care involves placing the newborn upright against the parent&rsquo;s chest, using the parent&rsquo;s body heat instead of an incubator to provide warmth and security. However, studies have found no significant difference between kangaroo care and other types of contact regarding health benefits for newborns, allowing for flexibility in choosing different types of touch based on the situation.



	&nbsp;



	Unlike in adults, where the familiarity of the toucher does not affect health outcomes, newborns benefit much more from being touched by their parents (often the mother in studies) than by strangers. Previous research has also indicated that early skin-to-skin contact and exposure to the mother&rsquo;s scent are crucial for newborns to adapt to their new environment. These findings highlight the irreplaceable role of parental care during this period. Additionally, the familiarity of the location where the touch occurs does not influence the effect of touch. Moreover, the frequency of touch does not apply to newborns as it does to adults. In terms of various physiological health aspects, touch is most effective in promoting weight gain in newborns.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-medium wp-image-1935" height="265" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture3-2-300x265.png" width="300" />



	▷&nbsp;Touch benefits both adults&#39; and newborns&#39; mental and physical health. Source: Julian Packheiser



	&nbsp;



	3. Not Just for Humans!



	&nbsp;



	Animal welfare has become a significant social concern in recent years. On one hand, pets have become integral family members, playing important roles as companions in many people&rsquo;s lives. On the other hand, there is a growing awareness that even farm animals and laboratory mice should not be treated merely as tools; we should also strive to improve their well-being as much as possible within their limited lifespans.



	&nbsp;



	Consequently, some experiments have examined the effects of touch on animals. Most studies have been conducted on rodents, including rats, mice, monkeys, cats, sheep, and coral fish. The primary forms of touch studied are stroking (lightly touching with the hand) and tickling (touching a body part to induce spontaneous movements or laughter).



	&nbsp;



	Research has shown that touch can have positive physiological and quasi-psychological effects, indicating that human touch can also benefit animal health. For example, a 2014 study divided 139 anxious cats newly admitted to an animal shelter into a stroking group and a control group. The stroking group received gentle stroking (lightly touching the head and neck area while speaking softly) four times daily for ten days, each session lasting ten minutes [7]. The study found that the cats that were gently stroked daily exhibited fewer negative emotions (anxiety or irritation) compared to the control group and secreted more immunoglobulin A. Additionally, the incidence of upper respiratory diseases in the control group was 2.4 times higher than in the stroking group.



	&nbsp;



	Another interesting study used a machine to simulate the tactile stimulation provided by cleaner wrasses (Labroides dimidiatus) to striped surgeonfish (Ctenochaetus striatus) for removing ectoparasites&nbsp;[8]. The cortisol levels of the surgeonfish significantly decreased when they received tactile stimulation from the machine compared to when they were in contact with a stationary machine. The results suggest that even without social interaction, mere touch can yield positive health effects. These findings can help improve animal welfare in laboratory settings, animal husbandry, and pet relationships.



	&nbsp;



	Correspondingly, human-animal interaction is a crucial element of animal-assisted therapy, widely applied in treating conditions such as cognitive impairments, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Studies have shown its potential for development in these areas [6,9].



	&nbsp;



	4. Conclusion



	&nbsp;



	In summary, touch is an innate ability and necessity for us. Whether it&rsquo;s a loving hug, a friendly handshake, or a parent&rsquo;s care for their child, we all have many warm memories associated with touch. However, in a world of rapid technological advancement, hectic work schedules, and sudden pandemics, we inevitably lose some opportunities for touch and, unknowingly, some of the positive emotions and sensations that accompany it. Hopefully, we can all utilize and enjoy touch, bringing comfort, relaxation, and happiness to ourselves and those around us during moments of fatigue and overwhelming stress.



	&nbsp;

[:zh]


[:]

What Kinds of Touch are Most Beneficial for Mental and Physical Health?

[:en]What Kinds of Touch are Most Beneficial for Mental and Physical Health?[:]

Features

Karl Friston: Building the Future's Intelligent Ecosystem Based on Free Energy Theory

[:en]Karl Friston: Building the Future's Intelligent Ecosystem Based on Free Energy Theory[:]

Are You Addicted to GPT?

[:en]Are You Addicted to GPT?[:]

[:en]
	&nbsp;


<h2>
	1. The Long and Arduous Road of Drug Development
</h2>


	Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD), the most prevalent form of dementia, is rapidly evolving into a global public health crisis. Current statistics indicate that approximately 40 million people worldwide suffer from AD, with forecasts predicting an increase to 152 million by 2050. As patient numbers grow, the progressive decline in cognitive and memory functions significantly affects patients and their families, posing a substantial burden on socio-economic systems.



	&nbsp;



	In response to AD&rsquo;s devastation, the medical community has persistently pursued solutions. Over recent decades, significant progress has been made in understanding AD&rsquo;s pathogenesis, with various hypotheses targeting proteins such as beta-amyloid (A&beta;) and tau. Although some promising drugs have entered clinical trials, to date, very few have been approved for the market, and these primarily provide symptomatic relief rather than a cure.



	&nbsp;



	Among the popular monoclonal antibody drugs, Aduhelm was launched in 2022 but has since been gradually abandoned by its developers due to controversial effectiveness and safety concerns. Conversely, Leqembi, approved in 2023, has been shown to slow cognitive decline by 27% within 18 months in early-stage AD patients. However, its high cost and limited insurance coverage mean only about 398,000 patients worldwide may receive it by 2026.



	&nbsp;



	Unlike hypertension patients who can manage their condition with antihypertensive drugs, the hope of curing AD with a few pills remains unrealized. Yet, are there other options? Recently, a novel non-pharmacological treatment has emerged quietly: 40Hz audiovisual stimulation therapy. This therapy, featuring a unique mechanism and easy operation, has shown promise in animal studies and preliminary clinical trials, offering new hope in the fight against AD.



	&nbsp;


<h2>
	2. The 40Hz Audiovisual Stimulation: A New Pathway
</h2>


	Our brain is composed of approximately 86 billion neurons that work together like a vast symphony orchestra, performing complex cognitive functions. Neurons communicate through electrical signals, analogous to how orchestra members coordinate with the conductor and each other. During a performance, various musical instruments harmonize, creating a pleasing symphony. Similarly, in the brain, many neurons firing synchronously produce oscillations at specific frequencies, known as &quot;neural oscillations.&quot;



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1901" height="414" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture1.png" width="784" />



	▷&nbsp;Different bands of neural oscillations. Figure source: Pandey, Pankaj, Richa Tripathi, and Krishna Prasad Miyapuram. &quot;Classifying oscillatory brain activity associated with Indian Rasa s using network metrics.&quot; Brain Informatics 9.1 (2022): 15.



	&nbsp;



	Neural oscillations, like musical notes, occur at different frequencies. Researchers classify these into several bands: &delta; (1-4Hz), &theta; (4-8Hz), &alpha; (8-12Hz), &beta; (12-30Hz), and &gamma; (30-100Hz). Each band is linked to specific brain functions. For example, &alpha; waves are present during wakeful relaxation, whereas &gamma; waves are associated with higher cognitive processes such as perception, memory, and attention. In Alzheimer&rsquo;s disease (AD) patients, &gamma; oscillations are often disrupted, akin to a disjointed climactic movement in a musical performance. Studies utilizing electroencephalography and magnetoencephalography have shown significantly reduced &gamma; oscillations in both AD patients and animal models, indicating a decline in neuronal synchrony. This disruption impacts information transmission and integration across different brain regions, playing a crucial role in the progression of AD.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1900" height="270" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture2.png" width="480" />



	▷&nbsp;Differences in &gamma;&nbsp;rhythms between healthy individuals and AD patients. Figure source: https://brainhealth.org.uk/?p=624



	&nbsp;



	So, can we restore the disrupted &gamma; oscillations in AD patients&rsquo; brains, allowing neurons to resume their rhythmic activity and play a harmonious symphony? The answer may be surprisingly simple: applying external 40Hz stimulation appears effective!



	&nbsp;



	In 2016, a groundbreaking study led by Professor Li-Huei Tsai from MIT, published in the prestigious journal &quot;Nature,&quot; revealed significant therapeutic effects of 40Hz light stimulation in treating AD in mice. This discovery was based on AD mouse models that, although not yet displaying evident amyloid plaques, showed clear disruptions in &gamma; rhythms closely related to higher cognitive functions like perception, learning, and memory.



	&nbsp;



	Researchers used optogenetic techniques to activate a key type of interneuron in the mouse brain. When these neurons were stimulated at a 40Hz frequency, the mice exhibited a significant reduction in the pathogenic amyloid-beta (A&beta;) protein, an effect not observed at other frequencies. Further analysis showed that 40Hz stimulation not only suppresses A&beta; production but also enhances phagocytic clearance by microglia. Stimulated microglia become more active, converging on plaques to perform a &quot;clean-up&quot; function, suggesting that regulating &gamma; rhythms could effectively combat AD through a dual mechanism.



	&nbsp;



	Although optogenetics is a compelling technology, it involves injecting viruses into the brain and implanting optical fibers, making it currently suitable only for animal experiments and not yet for clinical use. However, scientists have found that simply exposing AD mice to 40Hz flickering light for just one hour can reduce brain A&beta; levels by nearly 60%. After receiving light exposure for one hour daily over seven days, the amyloid plaques in their brains were also significantly reduced.



	&nbsp;



	What About Auditory Stimulation? In a 2019 study published in &quot;Cell,&quot; researchers explored the therapeutic effects of auditory stimulation further. The study found that 40Hz auditory stimulation reduced amyloid-beta (A&beta;) deposition in the auditory cortex of AD mice and synchronized neuronal activity in critical brain areas such as the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex. This synchronization with the 40Hz frequency exerted a therapeutic effect across a larger area. The mice also showed significant improvements in cognitive tasks, including spatial memory and object recognition.



	&nbsp;



	When sound and light were combined, the therapeutic effects were enhanced. This multisensory stimulation not only induced a more robust immune response but also significantly reduced A&beta; in the medial prefrontal cortex. Whole-brain three-dimensional imaging revealed that combined stimulation significantly reduced plaques throughout the entire cortical brain and decreased levels of hyperphosphorylated tau protein. These findings suggest that 40Hz audiovisual stimulation therapy affects not just the primary sensory areas but also crucial hubs involved in learning and memory such as the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, improving cognitive functions in AD mice behaviorally.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1899" height="498" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture3.png" width="498" />



	▷&nbsp;Audiovisual stimulation treatment for AD mice. Figure source: Martorell, Anthony J., et al. &quot;Multi-sensory &gamma;&nbsp;stimulation ameliorates Alzheimer&rsquo;s-associated pathology and improves cognition.&quot; Cell 177.2 (2019): 256-271.



	&nbsp;



	Another study published in &quot;Neuron&quot; the same year investigated the mechanisms behind 40Hz light stimulation. Researchers discovered that 40Hz light stimulation enhanced &gamma; rhythms in other brain regions, including the hippocampus, visual cortex, somatosensory cortex, and prefrontal cortex. It also slowed the loss of neurons and synapses in these areas, improving the mice&#39;s spatial learning and memory capabilities.



	&nbsp;



	Molecular-level studies revealed several potential protective mechanisms: suppression of pro-inflammatory gene expression in microglia, reduction of neuroinflammation, upregulation of genes related to synaptic function in neurons, enhancement of synaptic plasticity, induction of neuroprotective factors, and reduction of neuronal DNA damage, thereby helping to maintain genomic stability.



	&nbsp;



	Notably, 40Hz stimulation regulates not only the pathological changes associated with Alzheimer&#39;s disease but also shows a similar regulatory effect in normally aging mice, suggesting that it could broadly improve neural functions.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1898" height="663" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture4.png" style="" title="" width="663" />



	▷&nbsp;Treatment mechanisms. Figure source: Adaikkan, Chinnakkaruppan, et al. &quot;&gamma;&nbsp;entrainment binds higher-order brain regions and offers neuroprotection.&quot; Neuron 102.5 (2019): 929-943.



	&nbsp;


<h2>
	3. Skepticism from Other Teams
</h2>


	As the academic community marveled at the remarkable efficacy of such a simple therapy, a study published in March 2023 by Gy&ouml;rgy Buzs&aacute;ki&#39;s team at New York University in Nature Neuroscience delivered a significant blow to the 40Hz treatment credibility.



	&nbsp;



	Their research involved recording neural activity in various brain regions, including the visual cortex, olfactory cortex, and hippocampus. The study found that 40Hz light stimulation did not induce &gamma; oscillations and had a minimal impact on deeper brain regions. Further experiments indicated that AD mice seemed to dislike and actively avoid the 40Hz flickering light.



	&nbsp;



	The researchers also examined the effect of 40Hz light stimulation on AD pathology. Despite employing multiple experimental methods, they observed no changes in the quantity of amyloid plaques, no significant differences in microglial morphology, and no statistical differences in the levels of A&beta;40 and A&beta;42 between the treatment and control groups. Although some pathological indicators showed improvement, these changes were not stable or consistent.



	&nbsp;



	Does this mean that 40Hz audiovisual stimulation therapy for AD is ineffective? Not necessarily. Numerous factors can influence the outcomes of biological experiments. Even if all data are accurate and reliable, differences in key experimental steps, mouse strains, or slight changes in the environment can lead to vastly different results. Additionally, the study focused only on molecular pathological changes within the brain and did not explore the impact of the 40Hz therapy on cognitive functions, which are clearly more crucial. As the authors themselves stated, their results should not be viewed as evidence against the therapy&#39;s effectiveness in treating AD, and further exploration is needed to develop the 40Hz audiovisual stimulation therapy effectively.



	&nbsp;


<h2>
	4. New Research Tops &quot;Nature&quot; Again
</h2>


	In response to ongoing skepticism, Professor Tsai&#39;s team published a groundbreaking study in &quot;Nature&quot; in March 2024, uncovering a novel therapeutic mechanism for the 40Hz stimulation therapy.



	&nbsp;



	For normal brain function, an efficient &quot;garbage disposal system&quot; is essential to continuously remove waste. The glymphatic system, a crucial component of this system, depends on the unobstructed flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and interstitial fluid. It has been found that abnormal &gamma; oscillations may disrupt this process, potentially exacerbating Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD).



	&nbsp;



	The study discovered that just one hour of 40Hz audiovisual stimulation significantly increases the influx of CSF and the efflux of interstitial fluid in the cortical brain of AD mice. This effect is mediated by the key protein AQP4 on astrocytes. Inhibiting AQP4 with the small molecule TGN020 diminished the inflow of CSF and impaired the clearance of amyloid-beta (A&beta;). These findings were further validated in mice genetically modified to lack the AQP4 gene. Additional research demonstrated that 40Hz stimulation enhances CSF flow by promoting the polarization of AQP4 on the cell membrane.



	&nbsp;



	Further investigations have shown that arterial pulsation regulates CSF flow and that lymphatic vessels facilitate the drainage of CSF from the brain, also aiding in the transport of A&beta;. Experiments indicate that 40Hz audiovisual stimulation also boosts arterial pulsation and increases the diameter of lymphatic vessels in the brains of mice, improving A&beta; clearance.



	&nbsp;



	So, who coordinates all these processes? Subsequent experiments have revealed that these are regulated by VIPergic interneurons, which secrete the vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). Prior studies have indicated that the VIP pathway plays a role in regulating arterial diameter, astrocytic metabolism, and aquaporin transport, among other physiological processes. Inhibiting VIP neurons prior to 40Hz stimulation resulted in decreased A&beta; clearance, AQP4 polarization, and arterial pulsation.



	&nbsp;



	This research systematically elucidates a novel mechanism: 40Hz stimulation, via &gamma; oscillations, promotes the synergistic action of a neural-vascular-glia circuit centered around VIPergic interneurons, thereby accelerating AQP4-mediated CSF flow and the removal of pathogenic proteins. This multi-level regulatory process&mdash;from gene expression to cellular function and tissue level&mdash;reveals intrinsic connections between neural activity, CSF circulation, and AD pathology, further affirming the efficacy of 40Hz audiovisual stimulation in combating AD.



	&nbsp;


<h2>
	5. Rapid Clinical Translation
</h2>


	Building on these groundbreaking discoveries, Professor Li-Huei Tsai and her collaborators founded Cognito Therapeutics to officially begin the journey of transitioning 40Hz audiovisual therapy from the laboratory to clinical settings.



	&nbsp;



	At the 2021 Alzheimer&#39;s/Parkinson&#39;s Disease Congress, Cognito unveiled the results of a multicenter, randomized, controlled Phase II clinical trial (NCT-03556280). After six months of treatment, patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer&rsquo;s disease showed good tolerance to the company&#39;s 40Hz audiovisual stimulation device, named Gamma Sense. Patients in the treatment group, compared to those in the placebo or sham group, experienced an 84% reduction in cognitive decline, an 83% slowdown in the deterioration of daily living skills, and a 61% reduction in related brain atrophy.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1897" height="475" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture5-1024x949.png" style="" title="" width="512" />



	▷&nbsp;Clinical trial, showing a slowdown in cognitive decline.



	&nbsp;



	In the same year, the FDA designated Gamma Sense as a Breakthrough Device. Additional findings were published in the March 2024 issue of &quot;Frontiers in Neuroscience.&quot;



	&nbsp;



	Following the initial success of the Phase II trial, a Phase III clinical trial has been aggressively pursued. This trial aims to enroll over 500 patients who will receive daily audiovisual therapy for 12 consecutive months, with the trial&#39;s completion expected in 2025.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1896" height="341" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Picture6-1024x682.png" style="" title="" width="512" />



	▷&nbsp;40Hz audiovisual stimulation device, The Spectris. Source: COGNITO THERAPEUTICS.



	&nbsp;


<h2>
	6. Conclusion
</h2>


	Undoubtedly, 40Hz audiovisual stimulation therapy offers unique advantages. Unlike traditional pharmacological treatments, it modulates neural oscillations&mdash;a more upstream component&mdash;in a synergistic manner across multiple levels, providing neuroprotection and potentially slowing down the progression of Alzheimer&rsquo;s disease at various stages. As a non-invasive physical therapy, it is easy to administer, safe, and can be performed by patients at home. This convenience greatly improves patient compliance and reduces treatment costs.



	&nbsp;



	However, it is crucial to acknowledge that this therapy is still in the clinical trial phase. Early research has been limited by small sample sizes and short follow-up periods. Should Phase III clinical trials continue to demonstrate efficacy and long-term safety, and if personalized treatment adaptations are incorporated, 40Hz audiovisual stimulation therapy could emerge as a truly beneficial, non-invasive, safe, and affordable method to delay the progression of AD.



	&nbsp;



	It is also worth noting that 40Hz audiovisual stimulation therapy does not conflict with existing drug therapies; instead, it may enhance them. We can envision a scenario where patients receive regular injections of antibody medications while also using a daily head-mounted audiovisual stimulation device. This approach could enhance the effects of both treatments in a coordinated, precision medicine approach.



	&nbsp;



	While the prospects are promising, the path toward clinical translation is long and fraught with challenges. We look forward to ongoing efforts in both basic and clinical research that will further elucidate the mechanisms of the treatment, assess tolerance for long-term use, confirm the durability of the effects, and evaluate suitability across different populations. Through these endeavors, this innovative therapy may flourish and help humanity combat the formidable challenge of Alzheimer&rsquo;s disease.



	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;

[:zh]

[:]

Why is 40Hz Remarkably Effective?

[:en]Why is 40Hz Remarkably Effective?[:]

&nbsp;


	&nbsp;


	In the early stages of human societal development, communities were primarily close-knit, where every word and action of an individual spread among neighbors, creating tightly connected small communities. In these settings, interactions among individuals were not accidental but characterized by long-term continuity. Everyone consistently acted in ways that would shape their image and reputation within the community. This continuous interaction, resembling an expansive network, tightly interwove each individual&rsquo;s fate with the others&#39;. Against this backdrop, cooperation and mutual assistance emerged as crucial cornerstones in the early development of human societies.


	This perspective is rooted in the theory of the evolution of cooperation through repeated interactions, which posits that acts of cooperation are based on the anticipation of future cooperative opportunities. Such long-term social engagements foster cooperation among individuals. However, this seemingly plausible explanation overlooks a critical detail: even within long-term interactions, individuals may engage in ambiguous reciprocal behaviors (i.e., the fuzzy reciprocation strategy), potentially undermining the foundation of cooperation. In other words, the mere expectation of future interactions does not ensure the stability of cooperation.


	Another hypothesis, group competition, suggests that competition among groups fosters the evolution of cooperation. Yet, this theory also has its limitations. While inter-group competition can encourage internal cooperation, its effectiveness wanes when groups become exceedingly similar. Furthermore, even with discernible differences between groups, group competition may not efficiently bolster cooperation since cooperative groups tend to compete with each other rather than with non-cooperative groups.


	A recent article in Nature addresses the limitations of these theories, illustrating that their integration can produce a synergistic effect. While the basis for cooperation in repeated interactions is fragile, group competition can mitigate the negative impact of ambiguous reciprocation strategies. Indeed, evolutionary strategies often involve cooperative behaviors towards in-group members and non-cooperative behaviors towards out-group members.


	<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1847" height="473" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture1-1.png" width="967" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture1-1.png 967w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture1-1-300x147.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture1-1-768x376.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 967px) 100vw, 967px" /> 
	▷ Paper: Efferson, Charles, et al. &quot;Super-additive cooperation.&quot;&nbsp;Nature&nbsp;(2024): 1-8.


	The experiment was conducted in West Papua, New Guinea, where the research team selected two local communities, the Ngenika and the Perepka, to participate in a two-person sequential social dilemma game. Unlike the traditional prisoner&#39;s dilemma game, this experiment&#39;s game allowed for cooperative actions to vary continuously within a certain range, more accurately reflecting the social dilemmas humans encounter in the real world.


	In this game, each participant received a certain amount of &quot;resources.&quot; The game unfolded in two steps: initially, the first mover could choose to transfer some of their resources to the second mover, which would double during the transfer; then, based on the initial transfer, the second mover could choose to transfer some of their resources back to the first mover, which would also double. This setup not only presented an opportunity for cooperation but also posed a strategic challenge.


	The experiment explored three scenarios: one featuring only repeated interaction, one with only group competition, and one that combined both. Additionally, the study examined variations in strategic space dimensions to simulate potential cooperative strategies.


	The results revealed that participants engaged in higher initial resource transfers (indicating more cooperative behavior) when paired with in-group members, and lower initial resource transfers (indicating less cooperative behavior) when paired with out-group members. Importantly, the response strategies of the second movers varied significantly: responses to in-group members often increased cooperation (by augmenting resource transfers to reward the first mover&rsquo;s cooperation), while responses to out-group members generally reduced cooperation (by decreasing resource transfers in reaction to the first mover&rsquo;s level of cooperation).


	This pattern aligned perfectly with the research team&rsquo;s model predictions, suggesting that the combination of repeated interaction and group competition could create a powerful synergistic effect, fostering in-group cooperation and mitigating the negative impact of ambiguous reciprocity on cooperation.


	This experiment challenges the notion that a single mechanism, such as repeated interactions or group competition alone, can account for human cooperation. It introduces a new perspective: human cooperation may have evolved under the combined influences of repeated interaction and group competition. The findings demonstrate that even in one-off interactions, cooperative behaviors are shaped by the historical legacy effects of these two mechanisms, implying that the cooperative behaviors we observe today may be a direct result of social motivations that evolved in the distant past through in-group repeated interactions and inter-group competition.


	From the Ngenika to the Perepka, from forests to cities, and from ancient tribes to modern societies, the essence of cooperation has consistently permeated human interaction. This experiment serves as a mirror, reflecting the intricate and nuanced evolutionary backdrop of human cooperative behavior. The essence of human cooperation is not a product of simple algorithms but is cultivated through the complexities of repeated interactions and honed in the crucible of group competition.


	&nbsp;


	&nbsp;

[:en]
	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;



	In the early stages of human societal development, communities were primarily close-knit, where every word and action of an individual spread among neighbors, creating tightly connected small communities. In these settings, interactions among individuals were not accidental but characterized by long-term continuity. Everyone consistently acted in ways that would shape their image and reputation within the community. This continuous interaction, resembling an expansive network, tightly interwove each individual&rsquo;s fate with the others&#39;. Against this backdrop, cooperation and mutual assistance emerged as crucial cornerstones in the early development of human societies.



	This perspective is rooted in the theory of the evolution of cooperation through repeated interactions, which posits that acts of cooperation are based on the anticipation of future cooperative opportunities. Such long-term social engagements foster cooperation among individuals. However, this seemingly plausible explanation overlooks a critical detail: even within long-term interactions, individuals may engage in ambiguous reciprocal behaviors (i.e., the fuzzy reciprocation strategy), potentially undermining the foundation of cooperation. In other words, the mere expectation of future interactions does not ensure the stability of cooperation.



	Another hypothesis, group competition, suggests that competition among groups fosters the evolution of cooperation. Yet, this theory also has its limitations. While inter-group competition can encourage internal cooperation, its effectiveness wanes when groups become exceedingly similar. Furthermore, even with discernible differences between groups, group competition may not efficiently bolster cooperation since cooperative groups tend to compete with each other rather than with non-cooperative groups.



	A recent article in Nature addresses the limitations of these theories, illustrating that their integration can produce a synergistic effect. While the basis for cooperation in repeated interactions is fragile, group competition can mitigate the negative impact of ambiguous reciprocation strategies. Indeed, evolutionary strategies often involve cooperative behaviors towards in-group members and non-cooperative behaviors towards out-group members.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1847" height="473" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture1-1.png" width="967" /> 
	▷ Paper: Efferson, Charles, et al. &quot;Super-additive cooperation.&quot;&nbsp;Nature&nbsp;(2024): 1-8.



	The experiment was conducted in West Papua, New Guinea, where the research team selected two local communities, the Ngenika and the Perepka, to participate in a two-person sequential social dilemma game. Unlike the traditional prisoner&#39;s dilemma game, this experiment&#39;s game allowed for cooperative actions to vary continuously within a certain range, more accurately reflecting the social dilemmas humans encounter in the real world.



	In this game, each participant received a certain amount of &quot;resources.&quot; The game unfolded in two steps: initially, the first mover could choose to transfer some of their resources to the second mover, which would double during the transfer; then, based on the initial transfer, the second mover could choose to transfer some of their resources back to the first mover, which would also double. This setup not only presented an opportunity for cooperation but also posed a strategic challenge.



	The experiment explored three scenarios: one featuring only repeated interaction, one with only group competition, and one that combined both. Additionally, the study examined variations in strategic space dimensions to simulate potential cooperative strategies.



	The results revealed that participants engaged in higher initial resource transfers (indicating more cooperative behavior) when paired with in-group members, and lower initial resource transfers (indicating less cooperative behavior) when paired with out-group members. Importantly, the response strategies of the second movers varied significantly: responses to in-group members often increased cooperation (by augmenting resource transfers to reward the first mover&rsquo;s cooperation), while responses to out-group members generally reduced cooperation (by decreasing resource transfers in reaction to the first mover&rsquo;s level of cooperation).



	This pattern aligned perfectly with the research team&rsquo;s model predictions, suggesting that the combination of repeated interaction and group competition could create a powerful synergistic effect, fostering in-group cooperation and mitigating the negative impact of ambiguous reciprocity on cooperation.



	This experiment challenges the notion that a single mechanism, such as repeated interactions or group competition alone, can account for human cooperation. It introduces a new perspective: human cooperation may have evolved under the combined influences of repeated interaction and group competition. The findings demonstrate that even in one-off interactions, cooperative behaviors are shaped by the historical legacy effects of these two mechanisms, implying that the cooperative behaviors we observe today may be a direct result of social motivations that evolved in the distant past through in-group repeated interactions and inter-group competition.



	From the Ngenika to the Perepka, from forests to cities, and from ancient tribes to modern societies, the essence of cooperation has consistently permeated human interaction. This experiment serves as a mirror, reflecting the intricate and nuanced evolutionary backdrop of human cooperative behavior. The essence of human cooperation is not a product of simple algorithms but is cultivated through the complexities of repeated interactions and honed in the crucible of group competition.



	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;

[:zh]


[:]

Nature: United by a Common Foe or Sharing Scarce Resources—What Drove the Evolution of Cooperation

[:en]Nature: United by a Common Foe or Sharing Scarce Resources—What Drove the Evolution of Cooperation[:]

[:en]
	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;



	The 21st century is celebrated as the Information Age, a time when information has become an indispensable tool for survival and interaction with the world around us. But do we truly grasp the essence of &quot;information&quot;? It drives the era forward, yet its substantial impact on our lives and thought processes remains to be fully appreciated. Claude Shannon, a distinguished mathematician, laid the groundwork for information theory, offering a theoretical framework to discuss the quantification, storage, and transmission of information.



	According to this theory, information serves as a &quot;clue&quot; that significantly reduces the uncertainty surrounding unknown events. If knowledge about certain events decreases the uncertainty of another, then that knowledge is considered information. Consider a newcomer at a company who initially knows little about it and feels uncertain about his colleagues. After sharing a few meals, he observes their behavior and gradually discerns their interests and personalities. This newfound information makes the colleagues less unfamiliar and notably diminishes the newcomer&#39;s sense of uncertainty. In our everyday lives and interpersonal interactions, information is ubiquitous, profoundly shaping our communication and cognitive processes.



	From the perspective of information theory, the human brain is seen as an information-processing entity, with information acting as the neural system&#39;s fundamental currency. Neurons exchange information through electrical and neurochemical signals, constantly refining and integrating this data within the brain to shape our cognition and memory. Thus arises the question: Are electrical and chemical signals themselves information?



	Neuroscientists have yet to agree on this matter [1]. Referring to information as the "base currency" in a rhetorical sense may not capture its true essence. Recently, information theory has embraced a new viewpoint: information is not a monolithic entity but consists of various forms. This approach, known as "information decomposition," [2] seeks to break down information into three categories: unique information, redundant information, and synergistic information. This methodology offers a fresh perspective on the nature of information, aiding in a more thorough understanding of the brain&#39;s informational architecture and cognitive processes.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1864" height="313" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture6.png" width="993" /> ▷ Original paper：Luppi, Andrea I., et al. &quot;Information decomposition and the informational architecture of the brain.&quot;&nbsp;Trends in Cognitive Sciences&nbsp;(2024).



	&nbsp;


<h2>
	1. Information Decomposition: Multifaceted Information
</h2>


	The three types of information&mdash;unique, redundant, and synergistic&mdash;each possess distinct characteristics and fulfill different roles in the process of information processing. Consider visual information processing as an example. The human visual system comprises central and peripheral visual fields. The peripheral visual field captures a broad range of environmental information, including the general location and blurred details of objects. The information in the peripheral visual field of each eye is unique because closing one eye (for example, the left eye) results in the loss of that eye&#39;s peripheral information, leaving the brain to rely solely on the other eye (right eye).



	For instance, while driving, peripheral vision allows the driver to notice vehicles on the sides and behind through the rearview mirror. Should the driver close his left eye due to discomfort, he might not see a vehicle approaching quickly from the left rear side, potentially leading to an unforeseen accident. In contrast, the central visual field, which is the focal area of human vision, contains most of the detailed information we perceive. For a driver, the vehicle directly ahead in the same lane is visible within the central visual field of both eyes. Closing the left eye momentarily still allows the driver, using just the right eye, to observe the vehicle ahead. Such information is categorized as &quot;redundant information,&quot; valued for its robustness since the same information is provided by multiple sources. This overrepresentation ensures that information is still accessible even if one source is compromised. However, the drawback of redundant information is its failure to fully leverage the brain&#39;s information-gathering capacity.



	Synergistic information is the final category. Stereoscopic vision cannot be produced by a single eye. How, then, does the world appear three-dimensional to us? This effect relies on the collaboration between both eyes. Due to their different positions on the head, each eye views the same object from slightly varied perspectives. The visual cortex receives two distinct two-dimensional images, and by analyzing the binocular disparity&mdash;the differences between these images&mdash;it calculates the object&#39;s distance, thereby creating a perception of depth and three-dimensionality. In driving scenarios, the cooperation of both eyes is crucial for accurately judging the distance to vehicles or obstacles ahead. Damage to either eye significantly compromises safety. Synergistic information&#39;s key feature is its efficiency, maximizing the interaction between different parts of the brain&#39;s neural system to achieve an effect where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, thereby playing a vital role in managing complex tasks. <img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1863" height="431" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture7.png" width="650" /> ▷ Figure 1: The acorn and banana in the image symbolize unique information, the rectangle denotes redundant information, and the cube illustrates synergistic information, which requires the combined effort of both eyes to perceive depth. Figure source: Reference [2] As a highly complex system, the human body's approach to information decomposition not only offers a more nuanced perspective on the structure of information but also finds applications in other domains, such as cellular automata, socio-economic data analysis, and artificial neural networks [3].



	&nbsp;


<h2>
	2. How does the brain integrate information?
</h2>


	Integration is a key concept in neuroscience and cognitive science, presenting researchers with two distinct interpretations: integration as oneness and integration as cooperation. The oneness perspective views strong correlations or synchrony between activities in different brain regions, as observed in brain data analysis, as an indication of high integration. This is based on the idea that integrated elements operate as a single unit. The more synchronous and similar the activities between two elements are, the higher their level of integration is considered. Conversely, the cooperation perspective argues that when different elements complement each other, the system&#39;s information processing capacity benefits from their interactions, signifying integration. In terms of information decomposition, integration is seen as the counterpoint to unique information.



	Oneness aligns with redundant information, while cooperation aligns with synergistic information. However, traditional neuroscience often relies on correlation to deduce the integration within the nervous system, a method that struggles to distinguish between oneness and cooperation accurately. High correlation typically suggests information redundancy, whereas low correlation can indicate either uniqueness or synergistic information. To differentiate redundancy from synergy, researchers have developed the synergy-redundancy index, which reflects the balance between these two in a system. If the system&#39;s total information output exceeds the sum of its individual parts, synergy is inferred. If the sum of the parts&#39; contributions exceeds the system&#39;s total output, redundancy is present. While intuitive, this approach has limitations in situations where synergy and redundancy coexist, and it cannot precisely identify synergistic information.



	Unlike correlation-based methods or the synergy-redundancy index, information decomposition provides a more accurate analysis of information processing by calculating the system&#39;s transfer entropy (TE). For instance, if TE data show a higher transfer from time series data X to Y than from Y to X in a system, X is deemed to have a significant &quot;influence&quot; on Y. Considering epilepsy, characterized by disordered functional connectivity in the brain, traditional interpretations view the highly synchronous signals among patients as indicative of oneness. This suggests that redundancy in different brain regions could contribute to epileptic seizures. However, when analyzing EEG data from epilepsy patients using information decomposition, researchers discovered increases in both redundant and synergistic information transfer from subcortical to cortical regions during seizures. Furthermore, an analysis of deep electrode recordings revealed that an increase in unique information transfer from specific subcortical areas to cortical regions might be a primary trigger for cortical oscillations, offering clearer evidence for identifying seizure onset zones [4]. <img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1862" height="753" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture8.png" width="954" /> ▷ Figure 2: Information decomposition offers a unified framework for cognitive science, where each bi-directional arrow crossing the central triangular area represents opposing concepts in cognitive and neuroscience. One end of the arrow corresponds to a category within the information decomposition framework, and the other end differentiates between two types of information, such as integration and disintegration&mdash;the latter implying unique information, and the former encompassing both redundant and synergistic information. Localization refers to instances where an information source solely contains unique information, making it exclusively available from that source. In contrast, sources with only redundant information disseminate their information across multiple locations. Differentiation occurs when system parts exhibit distinct behaviors or do not demonstrate oneness, indicating they might be independent or complementary. Figure source: Reference [2]



	&nbsp;


<h2>
	3. How does the brain balance redundancy and synergy?
</h2>


	Redundancy and synergy, significant modes of interaction within the brain, have been distinguished by extensive research. A meta-analysis utilizing the NeuroSynth database, which includes over 15,000 imaging studies, revealed that redundant information is crucial for sensory-motor processing. As the brain&#39;s input-output mechanism, stable sensory-motor processing is essential for survival, with redundant interactions providing the necessary robustness. Conversely, synergistic information serves as a &quot;global workspace&quot; in the brain, crucial for executing higher cognitive functions. Areas of the brain exhibiting high synergy demonstrate increased aerobic glycolysis rates and a broader range of neurotransmitter receptor expressions, supporting flexible and rapid energy supply, synapse formation, and neural regulation [5]. At the macroscopic scale, human resting-state fMRI data indicate that synergy is more prevalent overall [5], although specific brain regions vary. The frontal and parietal association cortices, integral for integrating multimodal information, primarily operate through synergy. The frontal association cortex is involved in long-term planning and decision-making, while the parietal association cortex focuses on spatial localization, hand-eye coordination, and other tasks. In contrast, redundancy is more common in primary cortical areas that process unimodal information, such as the visual, somatomotor, and auditory cortices.



	Compared to other primates, humans possess a more developed association cortex, suggesting a greater integration of information through cooperation and synergy, underscoring our cognitive advantages. Microscale research corroborates these macroscopic findings. Electrophysiological recordings in the prefrontal cortex reveal complex and flexible neuronal responses to stimuli and task changes, highlighting the importance of neuronal interactions. However, in the visual cortex, especially in areas V4 and V1, neuronal interactions contribute less to activity patterns [6, 7]. Artificial neural network research further supports these observations, showing that redundancy is predominant in early network stages. As learning progresses, neurons specialize, contributing more unique information. When networks learn multiple tasks, requiring flexibility to integrate different information sources, synergy strengthens.



	Damage to highly synergistic neurons significantly impairs network performance. Conversely, training with randomly deactivated neurons enhances redundancy and robustness, improving resistance to damage [8]. In summary, while redundancy offers robustness and underpins sensory-motor functions in humans and many primates, it does not maximize the neural system&#39;s information-processing capacity. Synergy, associated with higher-order information processing, is more efficient and flexible, playing a crucial role in advancing human cognitive capabilities. Damage to parts of this cooperative network is likely to impair higher cognitive functions. <img alt="" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1861" height="910" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture9.png" width="835" /> ▷ Figure 3: (A) The image shows brain areas where redundancy (blue) and synergy (red) predominate. Blue areas, related to primary sensory-motor processing, exhibit a modular network organization with structured connections for single modality processing, like visual information in the visual cortex. Red areas, responsible for complex cognitive processing, are associated with synaptic density, dendritic spine-related genes, and enhanced plasticity. (B) The evolutionary trajectory of synergy. While redundant information remains relatively stable across species, the human brain shows more developed synergistic information, likely due to expanded cortical areas, compared to other primates. Figure source: Reference [2]



	&nbsp;


<h2>
	4. A New Blueprint for Artificial Intelligence Design
</h2>


	The framework of information decomposition not only provides a comprehensive lens for examining brain information processing but also sheds light on human evolutionary advantages. Moreover, it paves the way for researchers to design AI systems that more closely mimic human intelligence. Artificial neural networks have shown impressive capabilities across various domains. A pivotal question emerges: Do these systems rely on synergy, akin to the human brain? Recent advances in artificial intelligence have largely been driven by increases in model scale. Researchers note that as AI models grow in scale and their ability to handle multitasking improves, they display more synergistic behaviors, hinting at AI systems becoming more human-like. However, the inherent fragility of synergistic actions introduces risks for AI, suggesting that future designs of AI systems should differentiate between types of information, and evolve the information decomposition framework into a universal tool for deciphering complex systems. This approach could also illuminate the inner workings of AI models, often considered &quot;black boxes.&quot; Conversely, artificial intelligence offers a fertile ground for testing theories of information. Observations indicate that synergy intensifies when confronting complex challenges. If AI systems were engineered to favor synergistic actions, perhaps through evolutionary algorithms, might they navigate complex tasks with greater efficacy? Moreover, an AI system designed solely for synergistic actions would provide a unique lens through which to examine the benefits and limitations of synergy&mdash;a scenario beyond the reach of any biological system.



	<img alt="" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1860" height="652" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture10-1024x652.png" width="1024" /> ▷ Figure 4: Envisioning the information decomposition framework as a Rosetta Stone bridging biology and artificial intelligence. Just as the Rosetta Stone, inscribed with Greek, Ancient Egyptian, and other scripts, was vital for decoding Ancient Egyptian history, information processing and decomposition elucidate the connections between brain structure, functional organization, and cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Similarly, in AI systems, this framework can clarify the links between system architecture, computational abilities, and performance outcomes. Whether in the biological brain or an AI system, information processing and decomposition, transcending the medium, can serve as a universal language. Figure source: Reference [2]



	&nbsp;


<h2>
	5. Conclusion
</h2>


	The rapid advancements in artificial intelligence technology often astonish us in our everyday lives. However, the complexity of the human brain vastly exceeds that of current AI capabilities, and the framework of information decomposition brings us one step closer to deciphering the brain&#39;s enigmas. What techniques will we uncover in the future to further decompose information? How can we leverage information decomposition to develop more sophisticated AI systems? Could a deeper insight into the brain&#39;s information architecture enable us to address the myriad mental health issues affecting society? Perhaps, with enough understanding of the brain&#39;s fundamental mechanisms, the creation of an artificial brain might transition from fantasy to reality.



	&nbsp;



	&nbsp;

[:zh]

[:]

When we acquire information, what exactly do we gain?

[:en]When we acquire information, what exactly do we gain?[:]

In this bustling world, each of us journeys through life, carrying our own stories and emotions, in search of a sense of belonging amidst the flow of time. Music, the universal language of humanity, crosses cultural and geographical boundaries with its unique charm, soothing our souls. Among its many facets, melody has the most profound ability to touch our hearts. But how do these melodies navigate the depths of our soul, and how does our brain encode and understand them?
A recent study published in Science Advances offers insights into this question, presenting a complex and detailed map of neural encoding in the cerebral cortex as people listen to melodies. (This research, initially available as a preprint on bioRxiv, was highlighted by Edward Chang during the &#8220;Music and Healing: Scientific Exploration and Clinical Practice&#8221; symposium, with subsequent coverage by NextQuestion.)
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture4-1-1024x261.png" alt="" width="1024" height="261" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1856" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture4-1-1024x261.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture4-1-300x76.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture4-1-768x195.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture4-1.png 1297w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" />
▷ Paper：Sankaran, Narayan, et al. &#8220;Encoding of melody in the human auditory cortex.&#8221; Science Advances 10.7 (2024): eadk0010. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adk0010
<h2>1. Fine-Grained Encoding of Musical Melody Dimensions in the Brain</h2>

To investigate how the brain encodes various dimensions of musical melodies, a research team led by Professor Edward Chang, a renowned neurosurgery expert from the University of California, San Francisco, developed a set of natural musical stimuli. This collection consisted of 208 short musical phrases arranged for different instruments, varying across three fundamental pitch-related dimensions: the absolute pitch of notes, the pitch change between adjacent notes, and musical expectancy based on preceding notes.
Employing high-density electrocorticography (ECoG), the researchers recorded neural physiological activity directly from the auditory cortex of eight participants. Analysis of high-frequency activity (HFA) revealed significant activity in the bilateral superior temporal gyrus (STG).
The team observed different neural response patterns when comparing notes of varying pitch (high vs. low), pitch changes (rising vs. falling), and expectancy (expected vs. unexpected). For instance, one electrode responded distinctively to different pitch ranges but not to pitch change or expectancy. Another electrode was sensitive to the direction of pitch changes, and a third electrode responded based on note expectancy. These findings suggest that various musical features are encoded independently by distinct neural populations within different areas of the auditory cortex.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture5-1-1024x833.png" alt="" width="1024" height="833" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1855" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture5-1-1024x833.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture5-1-300x244.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture5-1-768x625.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture5-1.png 1268w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /> 
▷ Figure 1. Melody pitch, pitch changes, and expectancy influence STG activity during music listening. (A) Visual representation of three melodic features of a sample melody; (B) Electrodes from all participants overlaid on a standardized brain model. Colors represent the average induced high-frequency activity peak across all musical phrases. (C) Responses at three sample electrodes show distinct preferences for pitch (left column), pitch change (middle column), and expectancy (right column). Figure source: The paper.
To quantify how each electrode encoded these melody dimensions, the researchers employed temporal receptive field (TRF) modeling, which predicts neural activity based on a set of stimulus features. The results indicated that melodic and acoustic features significantly contributed to the variance in neural activity across electrodes, with the model accounting for an average of 70% of the explainable variance. The study also identified that specific melodic features are encoded independently by distinct subpopulations in the STG. These subpopulations extensively overlap along the STG&#8217;s posterior-anterior axis without forming anatomically discrete subareas.
Analysis of specific electrodes&#8217; sensitivity to melodic features provided evidence that different neural populations encode information about pitch, pitch changes, and expectancy in unique ways. For example, some electrodes were finely tuned to low pitches, others were particularly responsive to ascending pitch changes, and yet others were sensitive to notes of higher unexpectedness.
<h2>2. The Impact of Melodic Expectancy on Music-Selective Activity</h2>

To explore the impact of melodic expectancy on music-selective activity, researchers exposed eight participants to natural English sentences and the previously mentioned musical stimuli, recording their electroencephalographic (EEG) activity. By comparing the relative strength of responses to music and language, they developed a selectivity index (SI) ranging from -1 (indicating a preference for language) to +1 (indicating a preference for music). They discovered that a significant number of electrodes exhibited consistent and strong selective responses to musical phrases over spoken expressions.
These music-selective electrodes were found to be widely distributed and interspersed among other sound-responsive groups within the superior temporal gyrus (STG), indicating that music selectivity is not confined to any specialized auditory subregion of the brain. Further investigation showed that electrodes with a stronger response to music than to language almost exclusively processed melodic expectancy. Specifically, an electrode&#8217;s degree of melodic expectancy encoding was predictive of its music selectivity, while encoding for pitch or pitch changes did not systematically correlate with selectivity. This suggests that while the brain employs common neurons to assess pitch qualities in both speech and music, each modality has specific neurons dedicated to prediction.
Additionally, research into the encoding of natural language&#8217;s statistical structure revealed that phoneme-based expectancy, akin to melodic expectancy, is encoded by electrodes with language-selective responses in the STG. This implies that the brain encodes statistical information related to music and language through distinct neural substrates.
To determine whether music selectivity is driven exclusively by melodic expectancy rather than by low-level acoustic differences, researchers introduced a novel stimulus termed &#8216;melodic language.&#8217; This stimulus transformed the continuous intonation of language into discrete musical tones that aligned with melodies while preserving other acoustic features of spoken language. Results indicated that melodic language elicited strong responses from music-selective electrodes, even when acoustic features closely resembled conventional language, and the strength of this response positively correlated with participants&#8217; perception of melody.
These findings collectively underscore the conclusion that music-selective activity, particularly when processing music and melodic language, predominantly reflects the encoding of melodic expectancy, rather than being based on low-level acoustic characteristics.
<h2>3. Encoding of Melody Pitch and Pitch Changes Shared Between Music and Speech</h2>

Researchers identified acoustic dimensions akin to melody pitch and pitch changes present in both music and language by analyzing the pitch contour of sentences and calculating the pitch changes between adjacent syllables. Despite the differences in the distribution of pitch and pitch changes across these domains, a substantial overlap was found, showcasing a shared foundation in these fundamental acoustic properties between music and language.
The study compared the unique variance explained by each feature in the temporal receptive field (TRF) model of language-induced activity, revealing a strong correlation in the encoding intensity by electrodes for both pitch and pitch changes across the two stimulus domains. This suggests that neural populations attuned to specific aspects of melody are likely adept at encoding the corresponding dimension in language as well.
To delve into how these neural populations employ a cross-domain, universal neural code for information representation, researchers analyzed tuning curves for the common range of pitch and pitch changes in music and language. The high correlation between tuning curves for both domains underscores a deeply conserved neural encoding mechanism.
Moreover, the study utilized a linear classifier to decode the direction of pitch or pitch changes based on aggregated electrode activity from participants. This classifier, trained and tested within both musical and linguistic contexts, underscored that, unlike the encoding of expectancy in musical melodies, basic musical attributes like pitch and pitch changes are encapsulated within a universal neural code also relevant to language.
<h2>4. Conclusion</h2>

At the nexus of music and language stands a bridge constructed by neuroscience. This bridge not only links two seemingly disparate domains but also reveals a profound unity in how the human brain processes sound information.
As we listen to music, our brain engages with the pitch of notes through two sets of neurons that also tune into the tonal rhythms of speech. It anticipates the next note with a specialized set of neurons. The superior temporal gyrus (STG) serves not just as a sanctuary for music; it is a complex information processing hub that distinguishes subtle pitch variations, traces the movement of notes as they jump or slide, and even anticipates the emergence of subsequent notes.
The elements of pitch and pitch changes, foundational to musical melody, are not regarded by our brain as exclusive to either music or language. They form a shared neural code, whether in the enjoyment of a melodic piece or in the listening to daily conversation. These essential sound properties are encoded and understood by our brain in a similar manner. Indeed, like the continuous flow of a river merging with the sea, music and language converge in the vast expanse of human cognitive processing.

[:en]In this bustling world, each of us journeys through life, carrying our own stories and emotions, in search of a sense of belonging amidst the flow of time. Music, the universal language of humanity, crosses cultural and geographical boundaries with its unique charm, soothing our souls. Among its many facets, melody has the most profound ability to touch our hearts. But how do these melodies navigate the depths of our soul, and how does our brain encode and understand them?

A recent study published in Science Advances offers insights into this question, presenting a complex and detailed map of neural encoding in the cerebral cortex as people listen to melodies. (This research, initially available as a preprint on bioRxiv, was highlighted by Edward Chang during the "Music and Healing: Scientific Exploration and Clinical Practice" symposium, with subsequent coverage by NextQuestion.)

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture4-1-1024x261.png" alt="" width="1024" height="261" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1856" />

▷ Paper：Sankaran, Narayan, et al. "Encoding of melody in the human auditory cortex." Science Advances 10.7 (2024): eadk0010. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adk0010

<h2>1. Fine-Grained Encoding of Musical Melody Dimensions in the Brain</h2>

To investigate how the brain encodes various dimensions of musical melodies, a research team led by Professor Edward Chang, a renowned neurosurgery expert from the University of California, San Francisco, developed a set of natural musical stimuli. This collection consisted of 208 short musical phrases arranged for different instruments, varying across three fundamental pitch-related dimensions: the absolute pitch of notes, the pitch change between adjacent notes, and musical expectancy based on preceding notes.

Employing high-density electrocorticography (ECoG), the researchers recorded neural physiological activity directly from the auditory cortex of eight participants. Analysis of high-frequency activity (HFA) revealed significant activity in the bilateral superior temporal gyrus (STG).

The team observed different neural response patterns when comparing notes of varying pitch (high vs. low), pitch changes (rising vs. falling), and expectancy (expected vs. unexpected). For instance, one electrode responded distinctively to different pitch ranges but not to pitch change or expectancy. Another electrode was sensitive to the direction of pitch changes, and a third electrode responded based on note expectancy. These findings suggest that various musical features are encoded independently by distinct neural populations within different areas of the auditory cortex.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture5-1-1024x833.png" alt="" width="1024" height="833" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1855" />
▷ Figure 1. Melody pitch, pitch changes, and expectancy influence STG activity during music listening. (A) Visual representation of three melodic features of a sample melody; (B) Electrodes from all participants overlaid on a standardized brain model. Colors represent the average induced high-frequency activity peak across all musical phrases. (C) Responses at three sample electrodes show distinct preferences for pitch (left column), pitch change (middle column), and expectancy (right column). Figure source: The paper.

To quantify how each electrode encoded these melody dimensions, the researchers employed temporal receptive field (TRF) modeling, which predicts neural activity based on a set of stimulus features. The results indicated that melodic and acoustic features significantly contributed to the variance in neural activity across electrodes, with the model accounting for an average of 70% of the explainable variance. The study also identified that specific melodic features are encoded independently by distinct subpopulations in the STG. These subpopulations extensively overlap along the STG's posterior-anterior axis without forming anatomically discrete subareas.

Analysis of specific electrodes' sensitivity to melodic features provided evidence that different neural populations encode information about pitch, pitch changes, and expectancy in unique ways. For example, some electrodes were finely tuned to low pitches, others were particularly responsive to ascending pitch changes, and yet others were sensitive to notes of higher unexpectedness.

<h2>2. The Impact of Melodic Expectancy on Music-Selective Activity</h2>

To explore the impact of melodic expectancy on music-selective activity, researchers exposed eight participants to natural English sentences and the previously mentioned musical stimuli, recording their electroencephalographic (EEG) activity. By comparing the relative strength of responses to music and language, they developed a selectivity index (SI) ranging from -1 (indicating a preference for language) to +1 (indicating a preference for music). They discovered that a significant number of electrodes exhibited consistent and strong selective responses to musical phrases over spoken expressions.

These music-selective electrodes were found to be widely distributed and interspersed among other sound-responsive groups within the superior temporal gyrus (STG), indicating that music selectivity is not confined to any specialized auditory subregion of the brain. Further investigation showed that electrodes with a stronger response to music than to language almost exclusively processed melodic expectancy. Specifically, an electrode's degree of melodic expectancy encoding was predictive of its music selectivity, while encoding for pitch or pitch changes did not systematically correlate with selectivity. This suggests that while the brain employs common neurons to assess pitch qualities in both speech and music, each modality has specific neurons dedicated to prediction.

Additionally, research into the encoding of natural language's statistical structure revealed that phoneme-based expectancy, akin to melodic expectancy, is encoded by electrodes with language-selective responses in the STG. This implies that the brain encodes statistical information related to music and language through distinct neural substrates.

To determine whether music selectivity is driven exclusively by melodic expectancy rather than by low-level acoustic differences, researchers introduced a novel stimulus termed 'melodic language.' This stimulus transformed the continuous intonation of language into discrete musical tones that aligned with melodies while preserving other acoustic features of spoken language. Results indicated that melodic language elicited strong responses from music-selective electrodes, even when acoustic features closely resembled conventional language, and the strength of this response positively correlated with participants' perception of melody.

These findings collectively underscore the conclusion that music-selective activity, particularly when processing music and melodic language, predominantly reflects the encoding of melodic expectancy, rather than being based on low-level acoustic characteristics.

<h2>3. Encoding of Melody Pitch and Pitch Changes Shared Between Music and Speech</h2>

Researchers identified acoustic dimensions akin to melody pitch and pitch changes present in both music and language by analyzing the pitch contour of sentences and calculating the pitch changes between adjacent syllables. Despite the differences in the distribution of pitch and pitch changes across these domains, a substantial overlap was found, showcasing a shared foundation in these fundamental acoustic properties between music and language.

The study compared the unique variance explained by each feature in the temporal receptive field (TRF) model of language-induced activity, revealing a strong correlation in the encoding intensity by electrodes for both pitch and pitch changes across the two stimulus domains. This suggests that neural populations attuned to specific aspects of melody are likely adept at encoding the corresponding dimension in language as well.

To delve into how these neural populations employ a cross-domain, universal neural code for information representation, researchers analyzed tuning curves for the common range of pitch and pitch changes in music and language. The high correlation between tuning curves for both domains underscores a deeply conserved neural encoding mechanism.

Moreover, the study utilized a linear classifier to decode the direction of pitch or pitch changes based on aggregated electrode activity from participants. This classifier, trained and tested within both musical and linguistic contexts, underscored that, unlike the encoding of expectancy in musical melodies, basic musical attributes like pitch and pitch changes are encapsulated within a universal neural code also relevant to language.

<h2>4. Conclusion</h2>

At the nexus of music and language stands a bridge constructed by neuroscience. This bridge not only links two seemingly disparate domains but also reveals a profound unity in how the human brain processes sound information.

As we listen to music, our brain engages with the pitch of notes through two sets of neurons that also tune into the tonal rhythms of speech. It anticipates the next note with a specialized set of neurons. The superior temporal gyrus (STG) serves not just as a sanctuary for music; it is a complex information processing hub that distinguishes subtle pitch variations, traces the movement of notes as they jump or slide, and even anticipates the emergence of subsequent notes.

The elements of pitch and pitch changes, foundational to musical melody, are not regarded by our brain as exclusive to either music or language. They form a shared neural code, whether in the enjoyment of a melodic piece or in the listening to daily conversation. These essential sound properties are encoded and understood by our brain in a similar manner. Indeed, like the continuous flow of a river merging with the sea, music and language converge in the vast expanse of human cognitive processing.
[:]

What Happens in Our Brain When We Listen to Music?

[:en]What Happens in Our Brain When We Listen to Music?[:]

Is thinking the spark of inspiration or the burden of the mind? Recall the night before the college entrance exam, where we all struggled with math problems: faced with the last major question on the math exam, scratching our heads, drafting and redrafting, pen lifted and then set down, repeatedly. In that moment, thinking undoubtedly became a heavy burden, like a mountain too daunting to climb.
Yet, in everyday life, many problems seem to solve themselves effortlessly, akin to simple arithmetic. Even for geometric fill-in-the-blank questions, practiced countless times and etched into our hearts, we often glimpse the answer instantly. In such instances, thinking appears so effortless, as if without the need to think, the answer naturally presents itself before our eyes.
For decades, psychologists have embraced the &#8220;dual-process theory&#8221; to distinguish between these two types of thinking. One type, swift and effortless as lightning, driven by intuition, is called System 1. The other, akin to climbing steep mountains, demanding deliberation, slow and challenging, is referred to as System 2.
You might not know this theory by name, but you are likely familiar with the book &#8220;Thinking, Fast and Slow&#8221; by Daniel Kahneman, the 2002 Nobel Prize in Economics laureate. The dual-process theory has been widely applied across various research areas, including judgment and decision-making, morality and human cooperation, and social cognition. Beyond academia, the theory also enjoys popularity among the public, influencing numerous policy formulations.
However, even such an influential theory faces its criticisms and challenges. Recently, researcher Wim De Neys from the University of Paris published an extensive article in Behavioral and Brain Sciences, discussing the limitations of the dual-process theory. His proposed new model, building on the dual-process framework, has sparked lively discussions among scholars.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture2-1.png" alt="" width="1013" height="318" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1851" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture2-1.png 1013w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture2-1-300x94.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture2-1-768x241.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1013px) 100vw, 1013px" /> 
▷ De Neys, Wim. &#8220;Advancing theorizing about fast-and-slow thinking.&#8221; Behavioral and Brain Sciences 46 (2023): e111.
<h2>1. Born from Conflict: The Dual-process</h2>

The dual-process theory, initially proposed by Peter Wason and Jonathan Evans and later refined by Daniel Kahneman, delineates human thought into two distinct modes: System 1 and System 2. System 1, the intuitive system, operates quickly and automatically, driven by emotions and experiences, and is challenging to control or change. In contrast, System 2, the deliberative system, is slow, rational, and conscious, requiring more resources but less susceptible to mistakes. The theory posits that these systems are fundamentally different and exclusive, leading to divergent responses, with System 2 capable of generating solutions beyond System 1&#8217;s reach. Empirical research across various disciplines supports this theory.
The existence of System 1 explains why people&#8217;s choices often defy logic and probability. Consider choosing between two jars for a chance to win a prize by drawing a red marble: Jar A, with 10 marbles including one red, and Jar B, with 100 marbles including nine red. Despite the better odds in Jar A (1/10) compared to Jar B (9/100) as per probability theory (System 2), the greater number of red marbles in Jar B (9 > 1) often makes it the more appealing choice due to intuitive heuristics (System 1).
The dual-process theory frequently examines conflict scenarios, such as the marble problem, where specific cues trigger intuitive responses. Due to a preference for minimizing cognitive effort, individuals may rely on intuition rather than engage in thorough, slow thinking. This tendency can change with sufficient resources and motivation, leading to deeper consideration. For instance, students may not scrutinize all options when an answer seems obvious during practice but will do so during critical exams to ensure accuracy.
Researchers in various fields use conflict scenarios to contrast the two systems, as seen in moral reasoning studies with trolley problems. Here, deontological reactions (i.e., avoiding harm) represent fast, intuitive System 1 responses, while utilitarian choices (i.e., maximizing overall well-being) reflect the more analytical System 2, involving complex decision-making processes.
Such conflict scenarios often categorize responses aligned with System 1 as &#8220;biases&#8221; and those with System 2 as &#8220;rational,&#8221; underscoring the theory&#8217;s assumption of exclusivity. This perspective is prevalent in research on heuristics and cognitive biases. Nonetheless, it&#8217;s crucial to recognize that not all System 1 responses are inherently biased; for straightforward queries like &#8220;What is 1 + 1?&#8221;, accurate answers can emerge swiftly from System 1.
<h2>2. The Exclusivity Hypothesis: The Dual-process</h2>

As previously discussed, System 2 is often activated when resources are abundant or motivation is high. Given its reputation for being more &#8220;rational&#8221; and producing responses beyond the reach of System 1, the question arises: when do people actually rely on System 2 for thinking? The cognitive load paradigm has been extensively used in research to investigate the transition between these two systems.
If engaging System 2 for thought demands more time and cognitive resources, then under the pressure of time constraints or cognitive overload, individuals will default to relying on the quick, instinctive reactions of System 1 due to a lack of resources. Numerous studies have supported this hypothesis; under restrictive conditions, people are less inclined to engage in deep thinking with System 2, lending credence to the dual-process&#8217; exclusivity hypothesis.
However, recent replication efforts and meta-analyses have cast doubt on the substantial impact of cognitive constraints. For instance, Lawson et al. (2020) observed that, in logic reasoning tasks, the difference in choice due to cognitive constraints was a mere 9.4%, and even under such conditions, more than 50% of decisions aligned with System 2 responses. This finding suggests that people are capable of making rational choices in line with System 2 even when conditions are not conducive to in-depth thinking. This challenges the notion that System 1&#8217;s intuitive responses cannot mirror those of deliberative thinking, thus questioning the exclusivity hypothesis.
The dual-response paradigm provides further evidence against this exclusivity. Thompson et al. (2011) had participants answer a question twice: initially, they were to respond quickly with the first answer that came to mind, and subsequently, they were allowed time to deliberate before giving a final answer. To ensure the initial response was intuitive (System 1), the first reply was given under time pressure or cognitive load. According to the exclusivity hypothesis, a deliberative, System 2-driven final response should correct an initial System 1-based intuition. However, empirical results have not supported this hypothesis. For example, in the classic logic problem involving the cost of a bat and a ball, many individuals who arrived at the correct answer ($0.05) did so initially, on their first, intuitive attempt.
The conflict detection paradigm further challenges the exclusivity hypothesis. In studies using this approach, participants are divided into groups faced with tasks that either present a potential conflict between the two systems or do not. Findings reveal that even in tasks where System 1 drives the initial response, participants can detect conflicts, taking longer and expressing less confidence in their answers (e.g., Šrol &#038; De Neys, 2021). This demonstrates that, even when relying on quick intuitive decisions, individuals can still discern the complexity and potential inaccuracies in their choices.
Do the dual-process truly operate exclusively of each other? Is System 1 incapable of producing the kinds of responses attributed to System 2? Given the evidence from various research paradigms, it&#8217;s challenging to assert the inferiority of System 1. It appears more plausible that System 1, typically associated with intuition, is also capable of yielding deliberative-type responses.
<h2>3. The Timing for System 2 Engagement</h2>

Given System 1&#8217;s susceptibility to biased responses, the question arises: How do individuals transition to using System 2? This shift has been the subject of various hypotheses.
&#8211; System 2&#8217;s Conflict Monitoring Ability
The dual-processes are often conceptualized as a serial processing architecture with default-interventionist characteristics, where we predominantly rely on System 1&#8217;s unconscious processing. System 2 is invoked for in-depth analysis when conflicts or challenges are detected. The classical view suggests that System 2 can identify conflicts arising from System 1, intervening as necessary. However, this raises a question: If System 2 preemptively recognizes conflicts, implying its activation prior to conflict, how is it &#8220;reactivated&#8221; for resolution?
&#8211; Low-Energy Deliberation
To refine this, some researchers propose that System 2 consists of multiple components, where conflict monitoring requires only a fraction of System 2&#8217;s capacity, utilizing less energy. Yet, this leads to another conundrum: If the deliberative functions of System 2 are dormant, and a low-energy segment is merely monitoring System 1&#8217;s outputs, what exactly triggers conflict detection within this low-energy segment?
&#8211; System 3
Considering the possibility that System 2 may not concurrently monitor and respond, could these monitoring duties be attributed to a hypothetical System 3? This notion, while offering a solution for conflict monitoring, still suggests that System 2 has formulated a response, undermining the concept of exclusive System 1 activity.
&#8211; Parallel Processing
Another view posits that Systems 1 and 2 can be simultaneously active, obviating a strict switch mechanism. However, this model, featuring a perpetually active, resource-intensive System 2 alongside a System 1 awaiting conflict verification, seems economically inefficient from a cognitive resource standpoint.
The traditional explanations for system transition exhibit limitations. Following an exhaustive review of dual-process theory research, De Neys has proposed a new model that transcends the exclusivity assumption, providing a more nuanced understanding of the mechanisms behind system switching.
<h2>4. Intuitive Responses &#038; Uncertainty Monitoring</h2>

As previously discussed, System 1 is also capable of generating &#8220;correct&#8221; responses. On this foundation, De Neys has restructured the dual-process theory, as depicted below.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture3-1.png" alt="" width="878" height="968" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1850" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture3-1.png 878w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture3-1-272x300.png 272w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture3-1-768x847.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 878px) 100vw, 878px" />
▷ Figure: This model encompasses four core components: System 1 (intuitive activation), uncertainty monitoring, System 2 (deliberation), and the feedback loop. In 1, I1 and I2 represent distinct intuitions, with the scatter plot illustrating the changes in activation strength of different intuitions over time. In 2, the blue curve depicts how uncertainty fluctuates with events, and d represents the uncertainty threshold. Individuals engage System 2 for deeper thinking only when uncertainty surpasses threshold d. The interventions of System 2 (such as modifying existing intuitions or crafting new responses) ultimately feed back into System 1 through the feedback loop. Figure source: De Neys (2023)
The initial phase involves System 1 generating a variety of intuitions, with different stimuli triggering specific intuitive responses. The activation level of these intuitions changes over time, peaking in strength based on the association with the cue that elicited them. In certain reasoning tasks, cues could include aspects like the number or proportion of red marbles.
The subsequent phase is uncertainty monitoring, where System 1 constantly assesses the degree of uncertainty by evaluating the variance in activation levels among various intuitions. De Neys offers a straightforward calculation for this: U = 1 – |I1 – I2|, where U denotes uncertainty, and I1 and I2 represent the activation strengths of two different intuitions, each ranging from 0 to 1. The lesser the difference in activation strengths between the two intuitions, the greater the uncertainty. De Neys posits that when uncertainty exceeds a specific threshold (d), it triggers the utilization of System 2 for in-depth analysis.
In its role, System 2 can undertake various functions within the thinking process, such as inhibiting responses, generating new ones, or rationalization. When faced with heightened uncertainty, System 2 engages, deliberating over the activated intuitions, either by tweaking the activation strengths of already generated intuitive responses or by formulating new ones distinct from existing intuitions. This process elucidates why employing System 2 does not invariably lead to &#8220;correct&#8221; or &#8220;rational&#8221; outcomes, corroborating findings from earlier research.
De Neys&#8217;s model culminates with the feedback loop. The adjustments made by System 2 to the activation strengths of different intuitions in System 1, or the new responses it generates, modify the level of uncertainty. Once the uncertainty dips below the threshold d, System 2 disengages, allowing the thought process to conclude predominantly with System 1.
In essence, De Neys clarifies the distinct roles of System 1 and System 2 in thinking. System 1 is tasked with generating and representing various intuitive responses and calculating uncertainty based on these intuitions&#8217; activation levels. The degree of uncertainty dictates the engagement of System 2; elevated uncertainty prompts System 2 to further process the intuitive responses from System 1 (e.g., adjustments, new response generation).
To contextualize De Neys&#8217;s model, consider a real-life scenario: lunchtime at a cafeteria with a choice between ice cream and cupcakes for dessert. Xiao Ming, who prefers ice cream, quickly decides based solely on System 1. Conversely, Xiao Gang, who likes both desserts, faces uncertainty, necessitating more deliberation (System 2 engagement). During this process, he might recall past experiences or consider recommendations, adjusting his preferences (feedback loop). Ultimately, remembering a previous stomachache from ice cream decisively lowers his uncertainty, leading him to choose the cupcake.
<h2>5. Conclusion</h2>

The critique of the dual-process theory by De Neys, along with his proposed new model, has attracted significant attention and commentary from numerous researchers. Currently, this model is still in the early stages of conceptual development, with many areas awaiting refinement.
For example, Ackerman and Morsanyi have raised concerns that De Neys&#8217;s model may not fully incorporate findings from metacognition, particularly the role of confidence in determining when to cease thinking. Baron has suggested that individual differences could influence the decision to stop deliberation. He posits that individuals who trust their intuition might halt after System 1&#8217;s response; those who are open-minded might pause only after exploring all possibilities; and individuals who are averse to uncertainty could seek confirmatory evidence for their intuition more diligently, aiming to minimize the uncertainty associated with further contemplation.
These discussions lead to a more fundamental inquiry: Is the dual-process theory necessary? Or, more pointedly, do humans indeed operate with dual-process? Many of De Neys&#8217;s criticisms also challenge this core premise.
Frankish proposes an extension of De Neys&#8217;s ideas, suggesting that System 2 might actually be a product of System 1. In his view, System 2 is not independent but rather a consequence of System 1&#8217;s conscious, sustained engagement with specific stimuli, acting as a &#8220;virtual&#8221; system. When confronted with complex tasks, we essentially decompose them into simpler subtasks for System 1 to process. For instance, in multiplying two-digit numbers like &#8220;11 × 84 = ?&#8221;, we break it down into manageable parts: &#8220;11 × 4 = 44&#8221;, &#8220;11 × 80 = 880&#8221;, and &#8220;44 + 880 = 924&#8221;. For an adult, each component is simpler than the direct calculation, facilitating rapid solutions.
Indeed, many problems that initially seem to require intensive thought can become intuitive through continual learning, showcasing the dynamic interaction between System 2 and System 1. For instance, once children learn multiplication tables, they no longer need to resort to addition for such problems, instead instantly recalling facts like &#8220;eight eights are sixty-four&#8221;, &#8220;nine nines are eighty-one&#8221;.
This reflection prompts us to consider the original purpose behind the proposal of the dual-process theory. As Tinghög and others have remarked, was it introduced to generate testable predictions? Perhaps not; it appears researchers regard the dual-process theory more as a theoretical framework rather than a predictive model. Despite the level of empirical support, the theory offers a valuable starting point, enabling researchers to formulate more precise questions and develop more sophisticated theories.
Nevertheless, the dual-process theory may still represent a useful heuristic, given humanity&#8217;s tendency to categorize the world in binaries: good versus bad, black versus white, fast versus slow, self versus others. With this in mind, does the dual-process theory enhance our understanding of human thought? Perhaps answering this question itself necessitates the engagement of System 2.

[:en]Is thinking the spark of inspiration or the burden of the mind? Recall the night before the college entrance exam, where we all struggled with math problems: faced with the last major question on the math exam, scratching our heads, drafting and redrafting, pen lifted and then set down, repeatedly. In that moment, thinking undoubtedly became a heavy burden, like a mountain too daunting to climb.

Yet, in everyday life, many problems seem to solve themselves effortlessly, akin to simple arithmetic. Even for geometric fill-in-the-blank questions, practiced countless times and etched into our hearts, we often glimpse the answer instantly. In such instances, thinking appears so effortless, as if without the need to think, the answer naturally presents itself before our eyes.

For decades, psychologists have embraced the "dual-process theory" to distinguish between these two types of thinking. One type, swift and effortless as lightning, driven by intuition, is called System 1. The other, akin to climbing steep mountains, demanding deliberation, slow and challenging, is referred to as System 2.

You might not know this theory by name, but you are likely familiar with the book "Thinking, Fast and Slow" by Daniel Kahneman, the 2002 Nobel Prize in Economics laureate. The dual-process theory has been widely applied across various research areas, including judgment and decision-making, morality and human cooperation, and social cognition. Beyond academia, the theory also enjoys popularity among the public, influencing numerous policy formulations.

However, even such an influential theory faces its criticisms and challenges. Recently, researcher Wim De Neys from the University of Paris published an extensive article in Behavioral and Brain Sciences, discussing the limitations of the dual-process theory. His proposed new model, building on the dual-process framework, has sparked lively discussions among scholars.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture2-1.png" alt="" width="1013" height="318" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1851" />
▷ De Neys, Wim. "Advancing theorizing about fast-and-slow thinking." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 46 (2023): e111.

<h2>1. Born from Conflict: The Dual-process</h2>

The dual-process theory, initially proposed by Peter Wason and Jonathan Evans and later refined by Daniel Kahneman, delineates human thought into two distinct modes: System 1 and System 2. System 1, the intuitive system, operates quickly and automatically, driven by emotions and experiences, and is challenging to control or change. In contrast, System 2, the deliberative system, is slow, rational, and conscious, requiring more resources but less susceptible to mistakes. The theory posits that these systems are fundamentally different and exclusive, leading to divergent responses, with System 2 capable of generating solutions beyond System 1's reach. Empirical research across various disciplines supports this theory.

The existence of System 1 explains why people's choices often defy logic and probability. Consider choosing between two jars for a chance to win a prize by drawing a red marble: Jar A, with 10 marbles including one red, and Jar B, with 100 marbles including nine red. Despite the better odds in Jar A (1/10) compared to Jar B (9/100) as per probability theory (System 2), the greater number of red marbles in Jar B (9 > 1) often makes it the more appealing choice due to intuitive heuristics (System 1).

The dual-process theory frequently examines conflict scenarios, such as the marble problem, where specific cues trigger intuitive responses. Due to a preference for minimizing cognitive effort, individuals may rely on intuition rather than engage in thorough, slow thinking. This tendency can change with sufficient resources and motivation, leading to deeper consideration. For instance, students may not scrutinize all options when an answer seems obvious during practice but will do so during critical exams to ensure accuracy.

Researchers in various fields use conflict scenarios to contrast the two systems, as seen in moral reasoning studies with trolley problems. Here, deontological reactions (i.e., avoiding harm) represent fast, intuitive System 1 responses, while utilitarian choices (i.e., maximizing overall well-being) reflect the more analytical System 2, involving complex decision-making processes.

Such conflict scenarios often categorize responses aligned with System 1 as "biases" and those with System 2 as "rational," underscoring the theory's assumption of exclusivity. This perspective is prevalent in research on heuristics and cognitive biases. Nonetheless, it's crucial to recognize that not all System 1 responses are inherently biased; for straightforward queries like "What is 1 + 1?", accurate answers can emerge swiftly from System 1.

<h2>2. The Exclusivity Hypothesis: The Dual-process</h2>

As previously discussed, System 2 is often activated when resources are abundant or motivation is high. Given its reputation for being more "rational" and producing responses beyond the reach of System 1, the question arises: when do people actually rely on System 2 for thinking? The cognitive load paradigm has been extensively used in research to investigate the transition between these two systems.

If engaging System 2 for thought demands more time and cognitive resources, then under the pressure of time constraints or cognitive overload, individuals will default to relying on the quick, instinctive reactions of System 1 due to a lack of resources. Numerous studies have supported this hypothesis; under restrictive conditions, people are less inclined to engage in deep thinking with System 2, lending credence to the dual-process' exclusivity hypothesis.

However, recent replication efforts and meta-analyses have cast doubt on the substantial impact of cognitive constraints. For instance, Lawson et al. (2020) observed that, in logic reasoning tasks, the difference in choice due to cognitive constraints was a mere 9.4%, and even under such conditions, more than 50% of decisions aligned with System 2 responses. This finding suggests that people are capable of making rational choices in line with System 2 even when conditions are not conducive to in-depth thinking. This challenges the notion that System 1's intuitive responses cannot mirror those of deliberative thinking, thus questioning the exclusivity hypothesis.

The dual-response paradigm provides further evidence against this exclusivity. Thompson et al. (2011) had participants answer a question twice: initially, they were to respond quickly with the first answer that came to mind, and subsequently, they were allowed time to deliberate before giving a final answer. To ensure the initial response was intuitive (System 1), the first reply was given under time pressure or cognitive load. According to the exclusivity hypothesis, a deliberative, System 2-driven final response should correct an initial System 1-based intuition. However, empirical results have not supported this hypothesis. For example, in the classic logic problem involving the cost of a bat and a ball, many individuals who arrived at the correct answer ($0.05) did so initially, on their first, intuitive attempt.

The conflict detection paradigm further challenges the exclusivity hypothesis. In studies using this approach, participants are divided into groups faced with tasks that either present a potential conflict between the two systems or do not. Findings reveal that even in tasks where System 1 drives the initial response, participants can detect conflicts, taking longer and expressing less confidence in their answers (e.g., Šrol & De Neys, 2021). This demonstrates that, even when relying on quick intuitive decisions, individuals can still discern the complexity and potential inaccuracies in their choices.

Do the dual-process truly operate exclusively of each other? Is System 1 incapable of producing the kinds of responses attributed to System 2? Given the evidence from various research paradigms, it's challenging to assert the inferiority of System 1. It appears more plausible that System 1, typically associated with intuition, is also capable of yielding deliberative-type responses.

<h2>3. The Timing for System 2 Engagement</h2>

Given System 1's susceptibility to biased responses, the question arises: How do individuals transition to using System 2? This shift has been the subject of various hypotheses.

- System 2's Conflict Monitoring Ability

The dual-processes are often conceptualized as a serial processing architecture with default-interventionist characteristics, where we predominantly rely on System 1's unconscious processing. System 2 is invoked for in-depth analysis when conflicts or challenges are detected. The classical view suggests that System 2 can identify conflicts arising from System 1, intervening as necessary. However, this raises a question: If System 2 preemptively recognizes conflicts, implying its activation prior to conflict, how is it "reactivated" for resolution?

- Low-Energy Deliberation

To refine this, some researchers propose that System 2 consists of multiple components, where conflict monitoring requires only a fraction of System 2's capacity, utilizing less energy. Yet, this leads to another conundrum: If the deliberative functions of System 2 are dormant, and a low-energy segment is merely monitoring System 1's outputs, what exactly triggers conflict detection within this low-energy segment?

- System 3

Considering the possibility that System 2 may not concurrently monitor and respond, could these monitoring duties be attributed to a hypothetical System 3? This notion, while offering a solution for conflict monitoring, still suggests that System 2 has formulated a response, undermining the concept of exclusive System 1 activity.

- Parallel Processing

Another view posits that Systems 1 and 2 can be simultaneously active, obviating a strict switch mechanism. However, this model, featuring a perpetually active, resource-intensive System 2 alongside a System 1 awaiting conflict verification, seems economically inefficient from a cognitive resource standpoint.

The traditional explanations for system transition exhibit limitations. Following an exhaustive review of dual-process theory research, De Neys has proposed a new model that transcends the exclusivity assumption, providing a more nuanced understanding of the mechanisms behind system switching.

<h2>4. Intuitive Responses & Uncertainty Monitoring</h2>

As previously discussed, System 1 is also capable of generating "correct" responses. On this foundation, De Neys has restructured the dual-process theory, as depicted below.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture3-1.png" alt="" width="878" height="968" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1850" />

▷ Figure: This model encompasses four core components: System 1 (intuitive activation), uncertainty monitoring, System 2 (deliberation), and the feedback loop. In 1, I1 and I2 represent distinct intuitions, with the scatter plot illustrating the changes in activation strength of different intuitions over time. In 2, the blue curve depicts how uncertainty fluctuates with events, and d represents the uncertainty threshold. Individuals engage System 2 for deeper thinking only when uncertainty surpasses threshold d. The interventions of System 2 (such as modifying existing intuitions or crafting new responses) ultimately feed back into System 1 through the feedback loop. Figure source: De Neys (2023)

The initial phase involves System 1 generating a variety of intuitions, with different stimuli triggering specific intuitive responses. The activation level of these intuitions changes over time, peaking in strength based on the association with the cue that elicited them. In certain reasoning tasks, cues could include aspects like the number or proportion of red marbles.

The subsequent phase is uncertainty monitoring, where System 1 constantly assesses the degree of uncertainty by evaluating the variance in activation levels among various intuitions. De Neys offers a straightforward calculation for this: U = 1 – |I1 – I2|, where U denotes uncertainty, and I1 and I2 represent the activation strengths of two different intuitions, each ranging from 0 to 1. The lesser the difference in activation strengths between the two intuitions, the greater the uncertainty. De Neys posits that when uncertainty exceeds a specific threshold (d), it triggers the utilization of System 2 for in-depth analysis.

In its role, System 2 can undertake various functions within the thinking process, such as inhibiting responses, generating new ones, or rationalization. When faced with heightened uncertainty, System 2 engages, deliberating over the activated intuitions, either by tweaking the activation strengths of already generated intuitive responses or by formulating new ones distinct from existing intuitions. This process elucidates why employing System 2 does not invariably lead to "correct" or "rational" outcomes, corroborating findings from earlier research.

De Neys's model culminates with the feedback loop. The adjustments made by System 2 to the activation strengths of different intuitions in System 1, or the new responses it generates, modify the level of uncertainty. Once the uncertainty dips below the threshold d, System 2 disengages, allowing the thought process to conclude predominantly with System 1.

In essence, De Neys clarifies the distinct roles of System 1 and System 2 in thinking. System 1 is tasked with generating and representing various intuitive responses and calculating uncertainty based on these intuitions' activation levels. The degree of uncertainty dictates the engagement of System 2; elevated uncertainty prompts System 2 to further process the intuitive responses from System 1 (e.g., adjustments, new response generation).

To contextualize De Neys's model, consider a real-life scenario: lunchtime at a cafeteria with a choice between ice cream and cupcakes for dessert. Xiao Ming, who prefers ice cream, quickly decides based solely on System 1. Conversely, Xiao Gang, who likes both desserts, faces uncertainty, necessitating more deliberation (System 2 engagement). During this process, he might recall past experiences or consider recommendations, adjusting his preferences (feedback loop). Ultimately, remembering a previous stomachache from ice cream decisively lowers his uncertainty, leading him to choose the cupcake.

<h2>5. Conclusion</h2>

The critique of the dual-process theory by De Neys, along with his proposed new model, has attracted significant attention and commentary from numerous researchers. Currently, this model is still in the early stages of conceptual development, with many areas awaiting refinement.

For example, Ackerman and Morsanyi have raised concerns that De Neys's model may not fully incorporate findings from metacognition, particularly the role of confidence in determining when to cease thinking. Baron has suggested that individual differences could influence the decision to stop deliberation. He posits that individuals who trust their intuition might halt after System 1's response; those who are open-minded might pause only after exploring all possibilities; and individuals who are averse to uncertainty could seek confirmatory evidence for their intuition more diligently, aiming to minimize the uncertainty associated with further contemplation.

These discussions lead to a more fundamental inquiry: Is the dual-process theory necessary? Or, more pointedly, do humans indeed operate with dual-process? Many of De Neys's criticisms also challenge this core premise.

Frankish proposes an extension of De Neys's ideas, suggesting that System 2 might actually be a product of System 1. In his view, System 2 is not independent but rather a consequence of System 1's conscious, sustained engagement with specific stimuli, acting as a "virtual" system. When confronted with complex tasks, we essentially decompose them into simpler subtasks for System 1 to process. For instance, in multiplying two-digit numbers like "11 × 84 = ?", we break it down into manageable parts: "11 × 4 = 44", "11 × 80 = 880", and "44 + 880 = 924". For an adult, each component is simpler than the direct calculation, facilitating rapid solutions.

Indeed, many problems that initially seem to require intensive thought can become intuitive through continual learning, showcasing the dynamic interaction between System 2 and System 1. For instance, once children learn multiplication tables, they no longer need to resort to addition for such problems, instead instantly recalling facts like "eight eights are sixty-four", "nine nines are eighty-one".

This reflection prompts us to consider the original purpose behind the proposal of the dual-process theory. As Tinghög and others have remarked, was it introduced to generate testable predictions? Perhaps not; it appears researchers regard the dual-process theory more as a theoretical framework rather than a predictive model. Despite the level of empirical support, the theory offers a valuable starting point, enabling researchers to formulate more precise questions and develop more sophisticated theories.

Nevertheless, the dual-process theory may still represent a useful heuristic, given humanity's tendency to categorize the world in binaries: good versus bad, black versus white, fast versus slow, self versus others. With this in mind, does the dual-process theory enhance our understanding of human thought? Perhaps answering this question itself necessitates the engagement of System 2.[:]

Thinking: Beyond Fast and Slow

[:en]Thinking: Beyond Fast and Slow[:]

In today&#8217;s rapidly evolving world, mental health has emerged as a critical global issue. The World Health Organization underscores the importance of prioritizing mental health in the global health agenda [1].
In the public health services of many countries, the initial step for individuals facing mental health challenges typically involves seeking help and obtaining a referral. This step demands that individuals proactively make an appointment with a specialist, discuss their issues, and then receive recommendations for the most appropriate services based on their specific needs.
However, structural issues, such as resource scarcity, prevent equitable access to these essential services. Furthermore, a lack of awareness about the need for treatment and feelings of shame regarding their conditions deter many from pursuing help for mental health problems.
Common mental disorders, including anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder, often result in individuals experiencing despair or isolation, severing connections with the external world. In such situations, the act of seeking help, particularly consulting with experts, becomes exceedingly challenging. Studies show that vulnerable groups, like ethnic and sexual minorities, face significant barriers to accessing help [2].
With the increasing demand for mental health services, addressing these challenges has become imperative. How can we ensure accessibility and inclusiveness, facilitating easier pathways for diverse groups to seek help? How can we provide timely and appropriate mental health services to those in need?
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1839" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture1-1024x372.png" alt="" width="1024" height="372" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture1-1024x372.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture1-300x109.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture1-768x279.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /> 
▷  Original paper：Habicht, Johanna, et al. &#8220;Closing the accessibility gap to mental health treatment with a personalized self-referral chatbot.&#8221; Nature Medicine (2024): 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02766-x
In recent years, with the emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots like ChatGPT into the mainstream, an increasing number of scholars are exploring the potential of integrating AI chatbots into public mental health services. A notable example is an article in Nature Medicine that introduced a personalized AI chatbot named Limbic Access (Figure 1). This chatbot, through surveys involving hundreds of thousands of participants, has been shown to significantly boost the rate of self-referral to mental health services. Furthermore, this increase in referral rates was especially marked among vulnerable groups, such as ethnic and sexual minorities [3].
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1837" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture2-1024x828.png" alt="" width="1024" height="828" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture2-1024x828.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture2-300x243.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture2-768x621.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture2.png 1280w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /> 
▷ Figure 1. Illustration of the Limbic Access personalized AI chatbot. For more details, visit Limbic (limbic.ai). Figure source: Original paper.
<h2>1. The Role of AI Chatbots Unveiled!</h2>
To set the stage for our discussion, it’s crucial to introduce a pivotal concept: self-referral. Given the distinctive challenges associated with mental health issues, individuals often hesitate to seek expert advice, leading to infrequent referrals to apt mental health services—where the bulk of research targets talk therapy for conditions like depression and anxiety. It is against this backdrop that the potential of internet resources and artificial intelligence technologies emerges, enabling self-referrals through online forms or with AI chatbot assistance.
In mental health care, self-referral stands as a key mechanism for individuals to access necessary services. Data from the National Health Service (NHS) in the UK reveals that, during the period from April 1, 2021, to March 31, 2022, self-referrals accounted for approximately 70% of all Talking Therapy referrals to the NHS, with the remainder initiated by general practitioners and other healthcare providers [4]. There&#8217;s evidence to suggest an increased openness towards engaging with AI chatbots for self-reporting and broaching more delicate subjects [5]. Nevertheless, the specific benefits of AI chatbots in facilitating access to support across different demographics remain underexplored.
This study seeks to shed light on this area. Conducted as a multi-site observational study with around 129,400 participants, it found that AI chatbot usage led to a 15% increase in self-referral rates, compared to a 6% rise in a control group utilizing alternative methods, like online form completion (Figure 2). Further analyses revealed that AI chatbot users completed self-referrals more swiftly and gained a clearer understanding of their treatment requirements. Crucially, the spike in self-referral rates among vulnerable populations was markedly higher with AI chatbots. Notably, the rate among minority ethnic groups rose by 29%, and an impressive 179% increase was recorded among non-binary individuals (Figure 3).
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1838" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture3-1024x768.png" alt="" width="1024" height="768" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture3-1024x768.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture3-300x225.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture3-768x576.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture3.png 1142w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /> 
▷ Figure 2. Change in the number of self-referrals after three months for the group using the AI chatbot (pink) or the control group (grey). Figure source: Original paper. 
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1840" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture4-1024x497.png" alt="" width="1024" height="497" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture4-1024x497.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture4-300x146.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture4-768x373.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture4.png 1270w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /> 
▷ Figure 3. Percentage change in self-referrals across social groups (gender and race) for the group using AI chatbots (pink) or the control group (grey). Figure source: Original paper.
<h2>2. Why Are AI Chatbots Useful?</h2>
Having established the efficacy of AI chatbots in enhancing self-referral rates, particularly among vulnerable populations, researchers proceeded to investigate the mechanisms underlying their utility.
To achieve this, they employed natural language processing (NLP) techniques to classify themes within textual feedback from 42,332 individuals who had completed self-referrals via personalized AI chatbots. This feedback was organized into nine predefined themes: four positive, two neutral, and three negative (Table 1). The analysis showed that an overwhelming majority of feedback fell into the positive categories (89%), a consistency observed across diverse social groups.
The primary benefits identified by participants were the convenience of using AI chatbots and the encouragement they felt to take the initial step towards seeking help. Moreover, the lack of human interaction was noted to significantly reduce feelings of shame and judgment, thereby enhancing self-awareness regarding their mental health condition.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Screenshot-2024-04-08-at-10.16.17-854x1024.png" alt="" width="854" height="1024" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1877" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Screenshot-2024-04-08-at-10.16.17-854x1024.png 854w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Screenshot-2024-04-08-at-10.16.17-250x300.png 250w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Screenshot-2024-04-08-at-10.16.17-768x921.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Screenshot-2024-04-08-at-10.16.17.png 1182w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 854px) 100vw, 854px" /> 
▷ Table1. 9 kinds of topics involved in the text feedback of help-seekers. Figure source: Original paper.
Further analysis across different social groups revealed that themes varied in frequency among specific demographics, with a focus on racial background and gender identity. Notably, minority ethnic groups, such as Asians and Blacks, more frequently mentioned self-awareness compared to Whites. Non-binary participants emphasized the chatbots’ non-human characteristics more than their binary peers did. These non-human traits are seen as a distinct advantage, indicating that individuals feel more comfortable discussing sensitive matters without fear of judgment, while still receiving empathetic support.
This investigation into AI chatbots’ effectiveness illuminates key insights for the ongoing refinement of these technologies.
<h2>3. Conclusion</h2>
Despite the promising prospects highlighted in recent research regarding AI chatbots in the mental health services sector, one might wonder whether this advancement can truly guide us toward a utopian scenario in public mental health services.
Dr. Jacqueline Sin from City, University of London, suggests that achieving this ideal is still a far-off goal [6]. She highlights that although nearly two-thirds of people may engage with AI chatbots for self-referral, we must not overlook the remaining third who are either unwilling or unable to use such technology. This segment could include those most marginalized, such as individuals with severe symptoms and very low socioeconomic status, as well as those lacking the necessary internet knowledge and skills, who may feel alienated by the rapid pace of technological change—comparable to &#8220;cavemen.&#8221; It&#8217;s crucial to recognize that these groups are more prone to mental health issues and have a pressing need for timely and appropriate mental health services.
While AI chatbots strive to bridge the gap in accessibility to essential mental health services across diverse populations, the risk of perpetuating long-term inequalities for those most in need of assistance remains a concern.
Looking ahead, it&#8217;s conceivable that with ongoing technological advancements and more in-depth research, AI chatbots could assume a more significant role in mental health services, even within the core aspects of psychological talk therapy, beyond merely facilitating initial self-referrals [7]. The critical question then becomes how to leverage AI chatbots to deliver higher quality and more effective treatment plans across different social strata.
Perhaps clinical psychology researchers will devise more streamlined and effective treatment models. Maybe algorithm engineers will refine AI algorithms further. Possibly, software engineers will create more user-friendly and accessible software. However, I contend that all these efforts should fundamentally embrace a &#8220;people-centric&#8221; approach, upholding the ethical standards in mental health services. After all, the focus is on individuals—not as means to an end or mere statistics in research papers and data reports.
I am optimistic that with the aid of artificial intelligence technology, strides will be made toward eliminating biases, achieving equality, and fostering increasingly fulfilling lives. This vision for the future is what truly defines our contribution to civilization.

[:en]In today's rapidly evolving world, mental health has emerged as a critical global issue. The World Health Organization underscores the importance of prioritizing mental health in the global health agenda [1].

In the public health services of many countries, the initial step for individuals facing mental health challenges typically involves seeking help and obtaining a referral. This step demands that individuals proactively make an appointment with a specialist, discuss their issues, and then receive recommendations for the most appropriate services based on their specific needs.

However, structural issues, such as resource scarcity, prevent equitable access to these essential services. Furthermore, a lack of awareness about the need for treatment and feelings of shame regarding their conditions deter many from pursuing help for mental health problems.

Common mental disorders, including anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder, often result in individuals experiencing despair or isolation, severing connections with the external world. In such situations, the act of seeking help, particularly consulting with experts, becomes exceedingly challenging. Studies show that vulnerable groups, like ethnic and sexual minorities, face significant barriers to accessing help [2].

With the increasing demand for mental health services, addressing these challenges has become imperative. How can we ensure accessibility and inclusiveness, facilitating easier pathways for diverse groups to seek help? How can we provide timely and appropriate mental health services to those in need?

<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1839" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture1-1024x372.png" alt="" width="1024" height="372" />
▷  Original paper：Habicht, Johanna, et al. "Closing the accessibility gap to mental health treatment with a personalized self-referral chatbot." Nature Medicine (2024): 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02766-x

In recent years, with the emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots like ChatGPT into the mainstream, an increasing number of scholars are exploring the potential of integrating AI chatbots into public mental health services. A notable example is an article in Nature Medicine that introduced a personalized AI chatbot named Limbic Access (Figure 1). This chatbot, through surveys involving hundreds of thousands of participants, has been shown to significantly boost the rate of self-referral to mental health services. Furthermore, this increase in referral rates was especially marked among vulnerable groups, such as ethnic and sexual minorities [3].

<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1837" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture2-1024x828.png" alt="" width="1024" height="828" />
▷ Figure 1. Illustration of the Limbic Access personalized AI chatbot. For more details, visit Limbic (limbic.ai). Figure source: Original paper.
<h2>1. The Role of AI Chatbots Unveiled!</h2>
To set the stage for our discussion, it’s crucial to introduce a pivotal concept: self-referral. Given the distinctive challenges associated with mental health issues, individuals often hesitate to seek expert advice, leading to infrequent referrals to apt mental health services—where the bulk of research targets talk therapy for conditions like depression and anxiety. It is against this backdrop that the potential of internet resources and artificial intelligence technologies emerges, enabling self-referrals through online forms or with AI chatbot assistance.

In mental health care, self-referral stands as a key mechanism for individuals to access necessary services. Data from the National Health Service (NHS) in the UK reveals that, during the period from April 1, 2021, to March 31, 2022, self-referrals accounted for approximately 70% of all Talking Therapy referrals to the NHS, with the remainder initiated by general practitioners and other healthcare providers [4]. There's evidence to suggest an increased openness towards engaging with AI chatbots for self-reporting and broaching more delicate subjects [5]. Nevertheless, the specific benefits of AI chatbots in facilitating access to support across different demographics remain underexplored.

This study seeks to shed light on this area. Conducted as a multi-site observational study with around 129,400 participants, it found that AI chatbot usage led to a 15% increase in self-referral rates, compared to a 6% rise in a control group utilizing alternative methods, like online form completion (Figure 2). Further analyses revealed that AI chatbot users completed self-referrals more swiftly and gained a clearer understanding of their treatment requirements. Crucially, the spike in self-referral rates among vulnerable populations was markedly higher with AI chatbots. Notably, the rate among minority ethnic groups rose by 29%, and an impressive 179% increase was recorded among non-binary individuals (Figure 3).

<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1838" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture3-1024x768.png" alt="" width="1024" height="768" />
▷ Figure 2. Change in the number of self-referrals after three months for the group using the AI chatbot (pink) or the control group (grey). Figure source: Original paper.
<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1840" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Picture4-1024x497.png" alt="" width="1024" height="497" />
▷ Figure 3. Percentage change in self-referrals across social groups (gender and race) for the group using AI chatbots (pink) or the control group (grey). Figure source: Original paper.
<h2>2. Why Are AI Chatbots Useful?</h2>
Having established the efficacy of AI chatbots in enhancing self-referral rates, particularly among vulnerable populations, researchers proceeded to investigate the mechanisms underlying their utility.

To achieve this, they employed natural language processing (NLP) techniques to classify themes within textual feedback from 42,332 individuals who had completed self-referrals via personalized AI chatbots. This feedback was organized into nine predefined themes: four positive, two neutral, and three negative (Table 1). The analysis showed that an overwhelming majority of feedback fell into the positive categories (89%), a consistency observed across diverse social groups.

The primary benefits identified by participants were the convenience of using AI chatbots and the encouragement they felt to take the initial step towards seeking help. Moreover, the lack of human interaction was noted to significantly reduce feelings of shame and judgment, thereby enhancing self-awareness regarding their mental health condition.

<img src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Screenshot-2024-04-08-at-10.16.17-854x1024.png" alt="" width="854" height="1024" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1877" />
▷ Table1. 9 kinds of topics involved in the text feedback of help-seekers. Figure source: Original paper.

Further analysis across different social groups revealed that themes varied in frequency among specific demographics, with a focus on racial background and gender identity. Notably, minority ethnic groups, such as Asians and Blacks, more frequently mentioned self-awareness compared to Whites. Non-binary participants emphasized the chatbots’ non-human characteristics more than their binary peers did. These non-human traits are seen as a distinct advantage, indicating that individuals feel more comfortable discussing sensitive matters without fear of judgment, while still receiving empathetic support.

This investigation into AI chatbots’ effectiveness illuminates key insights for the ongoing refinement of these technologies.
<h2>3. Conclusion</h2>
Despite the promising prospects highlighted in recent research regarding AI chatbots in the mental health services sector, one might wonder whether this advancement can truly guide us toward a utopian scenario in public mental health services.

Dr. Jacqueline Sin from City, University of London, suggests that achieving this ideal is still a far-off goal [6]. She highlights that although nearly two-thirds of people may engage with AI chatbots for self-referral, we must not overlook the remaining third who are either unwilling or unable to use such technology. This segment could include those most marginalized, such as individuals with severe symptoms and very low socioeconomic status, as well as those lacking the necessary internet knowledge and skills, who may feel alienated by the rapid pace of technological change—comparable to "cavemen." It's crucial to recognize that these groups are more prone to mental health issues and have a pressing need for timely and appropriate mental health services.

While AI chatbots strive to bridge the gap in accessibility to essential mental health services across diverse populations, the risk of perpetuating long-term inequalities for those most in need of assistance remains a concern.

Looking ahead, it's conceivable that with ongoing technological advancements and more in-depth research, AI chatbots could assume a more significant role in mental health services, even within the core aspects of psychological talk therapy, beyond merely facilitating initial self-referrals [7]. The critical question then becomes how to leverage AI chatbots to deliver higher quality and more effective treatment plans across different social strata.

Perhaps clinical psychology researchers will devise more streamlined and effective treatment models. Maybe algorithm engineers will refine AI algorithms further. Possibly, software engineers will create more user-friendly and accessible software. However, I contend that all these efforts should fundamentally embrace a "people-centric" approach, upholding the ethical standards in mental health services. After all, the focus is on individuals—not as means to an end or mere statistics in research papers and data reports.

I am optimistic that with the aid of artificial intelligence technology, strides will be made toward eliminating biases, achieving equality, and fostering increasingly fulfilling lives. This vision for the future is what truly defines our contribution to civilization.[:]

Nature Medicine: Can AI Promote Equity in Mental Health Diagnosis and Treatment?

[:en]Nature Medicine: Can AI Promote Equity in Mental Health Diagnosis and Treatment?[:]

In 2023, what has artificial intelligence brought to neuroscience?

[:en]In 2023, what has artificial intelligence brought to neuroscience?[:]

[:en]In the field of neuroscience, numerous research papers on memory frequently mention the name Henry Molaison (H.M.). He was a patient who suffered from severe epilepsy. In 1953, he decided to undergo a surgical procedure aimed at treating his epilepsy, which involved the removal of brain tissue, including the hippocampus* (Figure 1). After the surgery, H.M. appeared quite normal in most respects: his personality, abstract thinking abilities, and reasoning skills were unaffected. He also retained memories from his childhood, clearly remembering the address of his childhood home. However, what puzzled people was that H.M. had almost entirely lost the ability to create new long-term memories. He could not remember the doctors who frequently saw him after the surgery, nor could he remember having just eaten.

*The hippocampus is a part of the brain's limbic system located beneath the cerebral cortex, playing roles in short-term memory, long-term memory, and spatial navigation.

H.M.'s experience sparked interest in the functional relationship between the hippocampus and memory. Nowadays, neuroscientists and psychologists have begun to recognize that there are multiple types of memory within our brain: episodic memories of past experiences, semantic memories of facts, and both short-term and long-term memories. But why do these memories exist in different forms? And where in the brain are these different types of memories stored? These questions remain mysteries to scientists.

<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1756" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/72cd94ef3d0ddfff932acdd2f85a77ca.png" alt="" width="396" height="212" />
▷ Figure 1: The hippocampus was removed from H.M. during surgery. Figure source: brainfacts.

Memory refers to the brain's ability to encode, store, and retrieve past experiences. The storage and generalization of past experiences are beneficial for animals in making adaptive decisions. For example, remembering the safe path to a specific water source and generalizing these memory cues can help identify environmental features that predict new water sources, such as the surrounding terrain and types of vegetation. Thus, this ability to recognize and understand current situations based on past experiences and predict future events, known as predictive memory, is particularly important for an organism's ability to adapt to its environment.

<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1670" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/1ccdb6a35dcc8347cf069b42ebc856cf.png" alt="" width="938" height="351" />
▷ Original paper: Organizing memories for generalization in complementary learning systems

A new theory, proven through experiments with artificial neural networks, suggests that the brain might classify memories based on their future utility. Specifically, predictive memories**(such as what to eat for breakfast each day or the route to take to work) are stored in the neocortex of the brain, aiding in better adaptation to changing environments and making effective decisions. Meanwhile, less useful memories, such as the taste of a special drink at a party, are stored directly in the hippocampus, without being consolidated in the neocortex.

Thus, the brain classifies memories based on their usefulness and predictability, optimizing memory reliability to help us cope with novel situations.

*Predictive memory implies that past experiences and memories provide a certain level of predictability about the occurrence or characteristics of future events. When the brain receives new information, it uses previously stored memories to recognize and understand the current situation and predict future events. This predictability helps individuals better adapt to their environment and make effective decisions.
<h2>1. Systematic Consolidation in Neural Network Models</h2>
Current classic research theories on memory storage across brain regions include the complementary learning systems hypothesis (Figure 2). This theory posits two complementary learning systems in the brain: the hippocampus and the neocortex. Located deep within the brain, the hippocampus is believed to be particularly active during the initial stages of learning, primarily responsible for the rapid encoding and storage of new information, crucial for the short-term memory of space, facts, and events. In contrast, the neocortex, part of the brain's outer layer, engages in the longer-term storage and integration of information. The learning process in the neocortex is slower, but it can handle more complex and abstract information, integrating it into long-term memory. These two systems work together in a dynamic learning and memory process, with the hippocampus rapidly encoding new information during the early stages of learning and then gradually transferring this information to the neocortex for more stable, long-term storage.

<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1669" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/3b721bb7bf2af2e83ab69b0673e4def9-1024x718.jpeg" alt="" width="1024" height="718" />
▷ Figure 2: The complementary learning process of the hippocampus and neocortex in memory storage. Figure source: researchgate.

Based on the complementary learning systems hypothesis, researchers have developed a neural network model called the "Teacher-Notebook-Student" for systematic consolidation (Figure 3), comprising three functionally different neural networks: the Teacher, Notebook, and Student networks. The Teacher network represents the environmental context of biological survival, providing experiential input; the Notebook network represents the hippocampus, capable of rapidly encoding all details of each experience provided by the environment; and the Student network represents the neocortex, predicting the information provided by the environment (Teacher) through experiences recorded in the hippocampus (Notebook).

In this neural network model, the "Teacher" is a linear feedforward network generating "input-output pairs" through fixed weights and additional output noise. The "Student" is a linear feedforward network of matching size with learnable weights. The "Notebook" is a sparse Hopfield network. During model training, the "Student" learns weights from a finite set of experiences containing signals and noise, aiming to minimize the squared difference between the "Teacher's" output and the "Student's" prediction. Furthermore, it is hypothesized that the main goal of the "Student" in this model is to optimize generalization performance, eventually predicting new "Teacher" outputs more accurately.

<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1668" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/8d91fe681cecf618ecb928e72660e9ac-1024x426.png" alt="" width="1024" height="426" />
▷ Figure 3: Teacher-Student-Notebook structure diagram. Figure source: Reference 1.

Researchers used this neural network model to simulate the dynamic process of memory and generalization, studying the actual impact and characteristics of systematic consolidation*. To optimize the Student's memory retrieval, researchers modeled the system as having infinite notebook playback. In each simulation, they generated experiential inputs from three different Teacher networks with varying predictabilities (high predictability, slight predictability, and unpredictability).

The results (Figure 4) show that although the generalization error of the Student network monotonically decreased for noise-free Teacher network inputs, noisy Teacher network inputs ultimately resulted in poor generalization performance of the Student network (red solid line). This indicates that in unpredictable environments, excessive systematic consolidation can severely reduce the model's generalization performance, leading to overfitting by the neocortex (Student) to unpredictable elements in the environment (Teacher).

This also implies that, in constructing neural network models, it is necessary to consider the level of systematic consolidation to ultimately enhance the model's generalization ability.

*Systematic consolidation is modeled as the plasticity within the synapses of the Student network, guided by the reactivation of the Notebook, akin to the hypothesized way hippocampal replay aids in systematic consolidation.

<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1666" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/1958888f6289735f14932c3ca5de5475-1024x307.png" alt="" width="1024" height="307" />
▷ Figure 4: Dynamics of Student generalization error, Student memory error, Notebook generalization error, and Notebook memory error during the optimization of Student memory. Figure source: Reference 1.
<h2>2. Generalization Optimization in Complementary Learning Systems (Go-CLS Model)</h2>
&nbsp;
<h3>Go-CLS Model</h3>
The Go-CLS Model, based on the Systematic Consolidation Neural Network Model, considers the adverse effects of systematic consolidation on model generalization ability in unpredictable environments observed in previous experiments. Researchers adjusted the level of systematic consolidation in the model. The fundamental hypothesis of this theory is that the degree of systematic consolidation is adaptively regulated. Once consolidation reaches a certain level, further consolidation should be halted to prevent weakening the model's generalization ability. According to the training results of the current Go-CLS model, under this setting, the Student (represented by the red solid line) can achieve nearly optimal generalization performance from the experiences of each Teacher.

<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1666" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/1958888f6289735f14932c3ca5de5475-1024x307.png" alt="" width="1024" height="307" />
▷ Figure 5: Dynamics of Student generalization error, Student memory error, Notebook generalization error, and Notebook memory error during the optimization of generalization performance. (b) High predictability (no noise); (d) Slight predictability (minor noise); (f) Unpredictability (high noise). Figure source: Reference 1.
<h3>Comparison with the Systematic Consolidation Neural Network Model</h3>
Upon comparing the aforementioned models, researchers found significant differences in their performance when processing Teacher data of varying predictabilities. In the standard systematic consolidation model, all memories are consolidated, but the generalization ability greatly varies with the predictability of the Teacher. For Teachers with lower predictability, this model exhibits a higher generalization error (Figure 6, left). In contrast, the Go-CLS model mitigates the detrimental effects of overfitting by halting before the Student can reach optimal memory performance. Moreover, as the predictability of the Teacher increases, both models show improvements in generalization and memory performance (Figure 6, right).

<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1665" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/b1cf189a9f25565de102f584313913dc-1024x315.png" alt="" width="1024" height="315" />
▷ Figure 6: Comparison of Student generalization performance changes with the Teacher's predictability level under the Systematic Consolidation Model and Go-CLS Model. Left: Systematic Consolidation Neural Network Model, Right: Go-CLS Model. Figure source: Reference 1.

It is evident that the Go-CLS model not only differs from the Systematic Consolidation Neural Network Model in aspects of retrograde amnesia* (i.e., the loss of past memories) but also in its approach to time-dependent generalization. After simulating hippocampal removal, the Systematic Consolidation Neural Network Model consistently shows a trend of gradually losing memories, implying that past memories are easier to forget. In contrast, the Go-CLS model can explain different types of memory loss phenomena, including those patterns that change over time. Regarding time-dependent generalization, when processing experiences of different predictabilities, both models produce a variety of generalization curves, with the maximum generalization performance increasing as the Teacher's predictability increases. However, only the Go-CLS maintains its time-varying generalization ability when the Student overfits. The Systematic Consolidation Neural Network Model might even lead to excessive generalization by the Student, resulting in highly inaccurate outputs.

*Retrograde Amnesia: The inability to recall events or information from before a specific point in time, while memories after this point are relatively preserved. This type of memory loss is typically caused by brain damage or other neurological disorders, affecting the individual's recall of past experiences and information. Retrograde amnesia may involve specific types of memory, such as semantic or episodic memory, rather than affecting all memory types. Researchers typically classify the dynamics of hippocampal forgetting based on whether the memory deficits are similar in recent and remote memories (flat retrograde amnesia), more pronounced in recent memories (graded retrograde amnesia), or absent in both recent and remote memories (no retrograde amnesia).
<h3>Supplement to the Theory of Complementary Learning Systems</h3>
The experimental results of the Go-CLS neural network model offer new insights into the complementary learning systems hypothesis. This hypothesis fundamentally posits the hippocampus and neocortex as fast and slow learning modules, respectively.

Researchers employed the Go-CLS neural network model to compare the generalization performance of the coupled Student-Notebook network (Figure 7, left) with that of the isolated Student (Figure 7, middle) and Notebook networks (Figure 7, right). In the Go-CLS model, the "Student" represents the neocortex, and the "Notebook" represents the hippocampus. The experimental groups of isolated Student and Notebook networks simulate scenarios where learning occurs using only the neocortex or the hippocampus, respectively.

<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1664" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/3a6433f05ee1b7a89e07c3b57da92d29-1024x406.png" alt="" width="1024" height="406" />
▷ Figure 7: Schematic diagram of learning system models: (a) Student-Notebook network; (b) Student network only; (c) Notebook network only. Figure source: Reference 1.

The isolated Student network model is limited in its generalization performance because it must learn online from each Teacher network's experiences without the ability to revisit or review past information (Figure 8, comparing orange and black curves). The results indicate that models including both networks perform better in generalization than those with only a Notebook. Furthermore, when the Teacher network provides moderately predictable data, the Student-Notebook coupled network model significantly outperforms the isolated Student network model in generalization. Therefore, under conditions of moderate data predictability and environmental noise, the Student-Notebook coupled network model exhibits superior generalization performance.

Moreover, the "replay function," or revisiting past learning experiences, can most effectively enhance the Student's learning capacity when the number of experiences available to the Student equals the number of adjustable parameters in the learning model. However, this approach risks overly adapting to old pieces of information, leading to inflexibility in responding to new situations, akin to the "double descent" phenomenon in machine learning. This phenomenon occurs when overfitting is most severe with a medium amount of data relative to the network size. To avoid this, the optimal Student-Notebook network model adjusts the amount of systematic consolidation based on the predictability of the Teacher, suggesting a similar regulatory mechanism in the brain for learning and memory based on experience predictability.

<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1663" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/12ab55cc976173269fb5e5f150c6de16.png" alt="" width="720" height="712" />
▷ Figure 8: Advantages of the complementary learning system. Figure source: Reference 1.
<h2>4. Summary</h2>
The Go-GLS model introduces a fascinating theoretical proposition: the brain might classify memories based on their predictability and future usefulness.
<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1662" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/b1bc04d8dfe81d1692d1bf178c15edef-1024x673.png" alt="" width="1024" height="673" />
▷ Figure 9: A story illustrating the conceptual difference between the Systematic Consolidation model and the Go-CLS model. Figure source: Reference 1.

Imagine a scenario where a young girl enjoys a day by the lake with her father. Among the day's experiences, predictable relations, like freshly picked strawberries tasting sweet, should be systematically consolidated to reinforce memories of predictable experiences. However, unpredictable co-occurrences, such as the color of the father's shirt coincidentally matching the strawberries, should not be consolidated in the neocortex but can still be stored in the hippocampus as part of the day's situational memory.

Additionally, the Go-GLS model has intriguing parallels with artificial intelligence research. It defines predictability through the optimal approximation error of teacher-student pairs, differing from real-world scenarios where achieving optimal student weights may not always be feasible. The model's concepts are applicable across a broader spectrum of models, including those with more complex student architectures and modern deep learning models. This necessitates exploring network architectures and learning rules that better balance memory and generalization.

However, the Go-GLS model currently focuses on simple supervised learning problems. Future efforts should address the optimal consolidation problem in more complex generalization scenarios, such as reinforcement learning and few-shot learning in large language models.[:]

How does the brain distinguish and store memories?

[:en]How does the brain distinguish and store memories? [:]

How Does the Large Language Model Proclaim the Death of Psychology?

[:en]How Does the Large Language Model Proclaim the Death of Psychology?[:zh]万字长文，大语言模型如何宣告心理学的死亡?[:]

The hippocampus, the deity in charge of memory, I am your breaker of barriers.

[:en]The hippocampus, the deity in charge of memory, I am your breaker of barriers.[:zh]海马体掌管记忆的神，我是你的破壁人[:]

When we discuss &#8220;intelligent animals,&#8221; which species come to mind? Perhaps it&#8217;s the Border Collie, epitomized by the saying, &#8220;Border Collies are to dogs what geniuses are to humans,&#8221; the gorilla, our &#8220;cousin&#8221; in the animal kingdom, or the orca, celebrated for its collaborative hunting strategies and instances of rescuing attacked divers.
In Australia, however, the sulfur-crested cockatoo might top the list.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1621" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/e174de97e868a62e0925b9ad67f6ea54.gif" alt="" width="600" height="338" /> 
▷ Sulfur-crested cockatoo skillfully opens the bin. Source: livescience.
These birds, known for their striking white plumage and sunflower-like yellow crests, are a common sight in zoos around the world, thanks to their successful breeding in captivity and remarkable learning abilities. Yet, in their native Australian environment, they have become a nuisance to residents. The cockatoos have mastered opening various types of garbage bins to forage for food, spreading this skill within their communities through social learning.
A study published in Science highlighted how the sulfur-crested cockatoos&#8217; bin-opening behavior rapidly proliferated, spreading from three to 44 Sydney suburbs from before 2018 to 2019. The researchers noted regional differences in the opening techniques, which varied by area, often separated by forests [1]. These ingenious birds have compelled humans to invent new technologies to secure their garbage bins, showcasing a fascinating interplay between humans and wildlife.
Interestingly, when considering &#8220;intelligence,&#8221; many overlook birds, favoring mammals, particularly those closely related to us. Yet, reflecting on examples from &#8220;parrots mimicking speech&#8221; to &#8220;crows utilizing tools for water displacement,&#8221; it&#8217;s evident that birds&#8217; intelligence is deeply ingrained in our cultural consciousness. Behavioral studies confirm that corvids and parrots exhibit cognitive skills across various domains comparable to those of non-human primates [2][3]. These include spatial and episodic memory, understanding cause and effect, delaying gratification, planning for the future, and even possessing a theory of mind.
What accounts for the remarkable intelligence of these avian species?
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1620" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/afab9d271755a8cb0739c2a83e880274.png" alt="" width="1016" height="292" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/afab9d271755a8cb0739c2a83e880274.png 1016w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/afab9d271755a8cb0739c2a83e880274-300x86.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/afab9d271755a8cb0739c2a83e880274-768x221.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1016px) 100vw, 1016px" /> 
▷ Original paper: Güntürkün, Onur, Roland Pusch, and Jonas Rose. &#8220;Why birds are smart.&#8221; Trends in Cognitive Sciences (2023).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2023.11.002 
&nbsp;
<h2>1. &#8220;Size&#8221; Doesn&#8217;t Matter, &#8220;Content&#8221; Is Key</h2>
To grasp the concept of intelligence, one must delve into the study of the brain. The intelligence exhibited by birds overturns a longstanding assumption that a larger brain equates to greater intelligence. While scientists cannot solely judge the intelligence of a species or an individual by the weight of its brain, within a given taxonomic group, a brain that is larger and heavier typically contains more neurons and offers greater computational capabilities, rendering its possessor more intelligent compared to its &#8220;cousins.&#8221; [4] This principle holds true for non-human primates, cetaceans, and birds. However, when comparing species that are more distantly related, the absolute and relative sizes of the brain are less indicative of intelligence. For example, corvids and parrots, with their brains weighing merely 5-20 grams, can rival the intellectual abilities of gorillas, whose brains weigh around 400 grams.
What enables these birds with walnut-sized brains to achieve such feats of intelligence?
A study published in PNAS in 2016 shed light on this question, revealing that despite their small size, birds&#8217; brains boast an exceptionally high neuron density [5]. In fact, birds have twice as many neurons per unit volume as primates and four times as many as mice. This dense neuron population allows the avian forebrain to possess a number of neurons comparable to that found in primates, laying the groundwork for similar information processing capabilities. Neurons, the fundamental units of brain computation, are crucial for determining a brain&#8217;s computational capacity. Birds, particularly with their higher proportion of pallial neurons, exhibit advanced cognitive functions. For instance, the corvus frugilegus and the callithrix jacchus have comparable brain weights, yet the corvus frugilegus possesses three times as many pallial neurons, which are essential for integrating various cognitive processes towards achieving complex goals. This abundance of pallial neurons makes the corvus frugilegus more intellectually capable than the callithrix jacchus.
Another neuron type crucial for cognitive flexibility is associative neurons, which mediate between sensory inputs and motor outputs, facilitating associative and motor learning. The New Caledonian crow has a significant number of associative neurons, comparable to those found in the prefrontal cortex of gorillas, further highlighting its sophisticated intelligence [6]. This crow species adeptly uses sticks to extract beetle larvae from tight spaces, showcasing its superior problem-solving skills. 
In summary, the remarkable computational abilities of the small bird brain, underscored by high neuron density, a significant number of pallial neurons, and associative neurons, provide a physiological foundation for avian intelligence. 
&nbsp;
<h2>2. The &#8220;Sufficient but Not Necessary&#8221; Neocortex</h2>
Birds and mammals embarked on separate evolutionary paths hundreds of millions of years ago, leading to significant differences in their forebrain structures. In mammals, the dorsal pallium evolves into the cerebral cortex, predominantly forming the isocortex. The term &#8220;isocortical&#8221; describes areas of the cerebral cortex that are structurally similar. This isocortex, also known as the &#8220;neocortex,&#8221; is unique to mammals, representing an evolutionary advancement in complexity and functionality. The neocortex encompasses regions responsible for perception, motor functions, and cognitive associations, playing a pivotal role in cognition and learning abilities. Traditionally, the neocortex was viewed as the cornerstone of mammalian intelligence. Yet, the intelligence displayed by birds prompts a reevaluation of this perspective.
In birds, the dorsal pallium—a structure analogous to that in mammals—develops into the hyperpallium. The avian hyperpallium, primarily involved in perceptual functions, differs significantly from the mammalian neocortex and does not directly correspond in terms of functionality. Beneath the lateral ventricles lie most of the avian pallial nuclei, collectively known as the dorsal ventricular ridge (DVR). The DVR, lacking a mammalian equivalent, functionally complements the hyperpallium by processing perceptual information and incorporating motor and associative regions. Recent research indicates that certain DVR regions involved in processing perceptual information exhibit a layered structure and information processing pathways akin to those found in the mammalian cerebral cortex [7]. However, the motor and associative areas maintain a nuclear arrangement.
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1619" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/71f8a1c998450ccf362887b06cb14f0f-1024x774.png" alt="" width="1024" height="774" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/71f8a1c998450ccf362887b06cb14f0f-1024x774.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/71f8a1c998450ccf362887b06cb14f0f-300x227.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/71f8a1c998450ccf362887b06cb14f0f-768x581.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/71f8a1c998450ccf362887b06cb14f0f.png 1103w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /> 
▷ A) The segmentation of the bird brain; B) The names of structures in the bird brain (highlighted in yellow) and their homologous structures in the mammalian brain (in white); C) The different information processing pathways, with C1 representing the isocortex, C2 the dorsal ventricular ridge, and C3 the hyperpallium. Source: Original paper.
These findings indicate that convergent evolution has led to similarities between the avian and mammalian brains in structure and information processing techniques. In terms of perceptual information processing, these isocortex-like structures may provide indispensable advantages. Nonetheless, given the evolutionary divergence between the DVR and neocortex and the distinct processing methods of the DVR, the neocortex appears to be a &#8220;sufficient but not necessary&#8221; condition for intelligence. 
&nbsp;
<h2>3. The Dopamine-Driven &#8220;Prefrontal Cortex&#8221; of Birds</h2>
We have previously examined the intelligence of birds, focusing on neuron numbers, types, and brain structures, and have noted both similarities and differences with mammals. We will now delve further into the reasons behind avian intelligence by exploring brain function.
The nidopallium caudolaterale, located at the end of the dorsal ventricular ridge, plays a crucial role akin to the mammalian prefrontal cortex, encompassing a wide range of cognitive processes. Notably, this region and the mammalian prefrontal cortex share the highest density of dopaminergic neurons in the brain, linking them to associative areas and premotor structures. Neurons in the nidopallium caudolaterale, like those in the mammalian prefrontal cortex, are adept at categorizing perceptual information (e.g., size and quantity), organizing stimuli in varying sequences (either prospectively or retrospectively), and encoding executive functions and sensory awareness. This similarity underscores the nidopallium caudolaterale&#8217;s pivotal role in orchestrating complex cognitive tasks, thereby exhibiting intelligent behavior in birds. 
&nbsp;
<h2>4. Do Birds Have Working Memory?</h2>
Working memory, the capacity to hold information for real-time processing, is essential for cognitive functions and is primarily associated with the prefrontal cortex. Research involving brain injury, pharmacological studies, and neurophysiology indicates that the nidopallium caudolaterale in birds also supports working memory. Techniques like single-cell recordings have identified &#8220;delay activity&#8221; in this area, mirroring the mammalian prefrontal cortex. This activity, where neurons remain active during the interval between stimulus presentation and response, signifies the presence of working memory in birds [8]. Furthermore, neurophysiological patterns akin to those in mammals, derived from the collective activity of multiple neurons, have been observed in birds, suggesting that despite their structural differences, avian cognitive activities can mimic mammalian neurophysiological signatures.
Studies on working memory often concentrate on individual neurons and specific brain regions. However, research on sleep and dreaming offers insights into cognitive abilities at a whole-brain level. For instance, experiments on pigeons during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep—a phase closely associated with dreaming—have shown brain activation patterns involving the limbic system, premotor regions, and visual and multimodal areas, similar to humans [9]. Although we cannot yet decipher dream content from such activity, there is speculation that pigeons may dream about navigating obstacles in flight. These findings suggest that birds&#8217; cognitive processes involve extensive neural network activities comparable to those in mammals.
Despite these similarities, the neurophysiological underpinnings of avian cognition also display unique characteristics. For example, unlike mammals, birds do not seem to use the hippocampus for memory consolidation during sleep, raising questions about how they manage and access long-term memories—a topic ripe for further investigation. 
&nbsp;
<h2>5. Why Are Birds So Intelligent?</h2>
In their latest opinion article in Trends in Cognitive Sciences, the authors explore the question, &#8220;Why are birds so intelligent?&#8221; to understand what constitutes a &#8220;smart brain.&#8221; So, what characteristics enable a brain to develop intelligence?
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1618" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/db68bf4dda445d9ae025f2af71d9855a-1024x710.png" alt="" width="1024" height="710" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/db68bf4dda445d9ae025f2af71d9855a-1024x710.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/db68bf4dda445d9ae025f2af71d9855a-300x208.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/db68bf4dda445d9ae025f2af71d9855a-768x533.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/db68bf4dda445d9ae025f2af71d9855a.png 1280w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /> 
▷ Figure: Venico_J
Firstly, intelligence is not merely a function of brain size. The quantity, types, and interconnectedness of neurons within the brain are, arguably, more vital. Birds, despite having smaller brains compared to mammals, boast a high density and large number of cortical and associative neurons, enabling them to achieve intelligence within a compact brain size.
Secondly, possessing a mammalian-specific neocortex is not essential for intelligence. The avian dorsal ventricular ridge (DVR), though not evolutionarily homologous to the mammalian neocortex and differing in physiological structure and processing pathways, performs similar functions in processing perceptual, motor, and associative information. This indicates that the neocortex is &#8220;sufficient but not necessary&#8221; for intelligence development.
Thirdly, the nidopallium caudolaterale in birds, rich in dopaminergic neuron connections, plays a role in nearly all cognitive processes. Functionally akin to the mammalian prefrontal cortex, it integrates information, encodes abstract cognition, and coordinates actions, suggesting that a control center resembling the prefrontal cortex is pivotal for complex cognitive abilities. This resemblance may be a result of convergent evolution.
Lastly, research on avian working memory and dreams during sleep demonstrates that, despite structural differences, avian cognitive processes share neurophysiological similarities with those of mammals. This suggests that the mechanisms underlying neuron and neural network cooperation in intelligence development share fundamental, indispensable commonalities.
By examining birds, we challenge the exclusive association of intelligence with mammals, exploring the concept of a &#8220;smart brain&#8221; from the perspectives of neuron numbers and types, brain structure, function, and neurophysiological activity. These are merely the directions currently well-explored, with other potential areas awaiting discovery.
The study of avian brains not only disrupts the notion that intelligence is unique to mammals but also offers a fresh lens through which we can examine our own intelligence and the essence of life itself. In questioning &#8220;Why are birds so intelligent?&#8221; we delve into our understanding of intelligence and the boundaries of life.

Why Are Birds So Intelligent?

[:en]Why Are Birds So Intelligent?[:zh]鸟儿为什么这么聪明？[:]

Transcending Perception: AI Algorithms Based on Biological Senses

[:en]Transcending Perception: AI Algorithms Based on Biological Senses[:zh]超越感知：那些基于生物感官的AI算法[:]

How many of these 20 groundbreaking neuroscience researches of the year are you familiar with?

[:en]How many of these 20 groundbreaking neuroscience researches of the year are you familiar with?[:]

In the vanguard of musical inquiry, mainstream theories suggest that music, lacking an explicit evolutionary function, persists in culture due to its implicit social and emotional roles. The importance of such research is evident. Yet, traditional experimental methods in neuroscience often fall short when probing the relationship between music and the brain. Music psychology posits that the controlled environment of the lab contrasts sharply with the dynamic world of live performances and real-life music appreciation. Neuroscientifically, specific brain regions are activated—or more robustly so—only through multimodal input, making the universality of findings under strictly auditory paradigms somewhat unclear.
Recently, the field of music neuroscience has begun pivoting towards more naturalistic and ecologically valid paradigms. Mari Tervaniemi from the University of Helsinki has elucidated this shift through three frameworks: the nature of auditory stimuli and empirical paradigms, the demographics of study participants, and the methodologies and contexts of data collection. This move aims to encourage innovative thinking based on existing naturalistic studies, further advancing the ecological validity of research.
&nbsp; 
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1558" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/listen-1-1024x366.png" alt="" width="1024" height="366" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/listen-1-1024x366.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/listen-1-300x107.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/listen-1-768x274.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/listen-1.png 1274w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /> 
Figure 1: Research Paper Cover
&nbsp;
<h2>Auditory Stimuli and Empirical Paradigms</h2>
&nbsp; 
In the cerebral concert of auditory neuroscience, sounds used in auditory paradigms are often meticulously crafted, with extraneous variables stringently controlled and stimuli repetitively presented. Researchers encode the sequence of sounds, tagging the auditory stimulus&#8217;s content, and measure the brain&#8217;s response as event-related potentials (ERPs).
However, when longer segments or entire pieces of music serve as auditory stimuli, measuring the brain&#8217;s response to relevant music features requires a different approach. Researchers employ Music Information Retrieval (MIR) tools to quantify acoustic and musical features within the piece and analyze the electroencephalogram (EEG) data as a function of these musical elements. For example, Poikonen and colleagues recorded the EEG signals of musicians, dancers, and laypersons while they listened to a segment from Bizet-Shchedrin&#8217;s Carmen. 
In another condition, participants were presented with an audiovisual segment, including modern dance choreographed to the same piece of music. Using MIR, researchers identified features such as timbral brightness in the music and calculated the corresponding ERPs. They found that dancers had a stronger P50 response to rapid changes in timbral brightness compared to musicians and laypersons. Additionally, when music was paired with dance, the N100 and P200 responses of all participants were both inhibited and accelerated. Thus, employing the MIR toolbox allows for a nuanced neuroscientific study of music over extended durations.
Other studies have utilized shorter musical phrases or beats as stimuli, using event-related potential (ERP) methods to explore the neural underpinnings of musical syntax processing. Like the linguistic P600 response triggered by syntactic violations, an unexpected pitch at the end of a musical phrase can elicit a similar P600 reaction. Another notable ERP is the mismatch negativity (MMN), which measures the neural precision of sound perception and cognition. MMN is triggered by an occasional deviant stimulus interrupting a regular sound sequence. Vuust and colleagues developed an ecologically valid MMN musical paradigm by using an In later MMN paradigms, the notes&#8217; rhythms were looped, with pitches varying randomly.
&nbsp;
<h2>Study Participants</h2>
&nbsp; 
Over the past few decades, the demographics of participants in neuroscience music studies have diversified significantly. Early investigations often compared musicians to laypersons and categorized musicians based on traits like absolute pitch. Later, classifications of musicians became more nuanced, considering factors such as traditional training versus self-taught approaches, as well as musical style and instrument type.
Traditionally, these studies focused on healthy adults. However, the scope has widened to include adults with congenital amusia and individuals with neurological or psychiatric conditions like dystonia, stroke with or without acquired amusia, and depression. More recently, cognitive neuroscience methods have been applied in extensive cross-sectional and longitudinal studies under music medicine and therapy, involving these and other diverse populations.
Beyond adults, children have been recruited for music studies to delve into the cerebral underpinnings of musical learning and understand the transfer effects of musical training on non-musical auditory and cognitive skills, such as language development. Further research has explored music&#8217;s role in treating neurocognitive disorders, including dyslexia and auditory processing disorders.
To understand the impact of early auditory learning, researchers have focused on full-term infants and neonates. Some studies have also involved mothers and their newborns to investigate if prenatal auditory experiences are reflected in the neonates&#8217; EEG as event-related potentials (ERPs) and subcortical frequency following responses.
In summary, data collection in music brain research has expanded to include individuals across the entire lifespan, both neurotypical and atypical. However, most of these studies have focused on Western music, highlighting an urgent need for expanded research into non-Western music. Consequently, the cross-cultural neuroscience of music requires the accumulation of more experience and data from studies involving non-Western musical forms.
&nbsp;
<h2>Data Collection Methods and Context</h2>
&nbsp; 
Technological advancements have extended the application of EEG beyond traditional laboratory settings, allowing for use in environments such as schools and day-care centers. As EEG technology has evolved, it now supports recording and analyzing subjects during broader ranges of movement. This development enables the capture of EEG data from performers playing instruments and listeners moving to music. Subjects can be monitored while playing sequences on a keyboard, with their finger movements, Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) data, and EEG recorded simultaneously.
Notably, modern concert halls equipped with technology to record physiological signals, including EEG, muscle activity, skin conductance, and heart rate, during live performances, open new avenues for understanding music listening and performance. Facilities like Canada&#8217;s McMaster University&#8217;s LIVELab and the ArtLab at the Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics in Frankfurt, Germany, can measure EEG and other physiological data in auditoriums and stages. Additionally, laboratories such as the fourMs lab at the University of Oslo in Norway and Casa Paganini at the University of Genoa in Italy are advancing the collection of multimodal data in real-world settings. Finland&#8217;s Aalto University&#8217;s Magicsvi project, which integrates virtual reality into artistic performance and learning, exemplifies the innovative direction of this field. The data from these laboratories, combined with participants&#8217; self-reported experiences like immersion in music and emotional responses, are expected to yield exciting insights into the artistic and scientific facets of music.
It is anticipated that the aforementioned advancements will serve as a catalyst, inspiring further interest and innovation in the study of naturalistic paradigms in music, and providing novel perspectives for exploring the neuroscience of music.

[:en]In the vanguard of musical inquiry, mainstream theories suggest that music, lacking an explicit evolutionary function, persists in culture due to its implicit social and emotional roles. The importance of such research is evident. Yet, traditional experimental methods in neuroscience often fall short when probing the relationship between music and the brain. Music psychology posits that the controlled environment of the lab contrasts sharply with the dynamic world of live performances and real-life music appreciation. Neuroscientifically, specific brain regions are activated—or more robustly so—only through multimodal input, making the universality of findings under strictly auditory paradigms somewhat unclear.

Recently, the field of music neuroscience has begun pivoting towards more naturalistic and ecologically valid paradigms. Mari Tervaniemi from the University of Helsinki has elucidated this shift through three frameworks: the nature of auditory stimuli and empirical paradigms, the demographics of study participants, and the methodologies and contexts of data collection. This move aims to encourage innovative thinking based on existing naturalistic studies, further advancing the ecological validity of research.

&nbsp;
<img class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1558" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/listen-1-1024x366.png" alt="" width="1024" height="366" />
Figure 1: Research Paper Cover

&nbsp;
<h2>Auditory Stimuli and Empirical Paradigms</h2>
&nbsp;
In the cerebral concert of auditory neuroscience, sounds used in auditory paradigms are often meticulously crafted, with extraneous variables stringently controlled and stimuli repetitively presented. Researchers encode the sequence of sounds, tagging the auditory stimulus's content, and measure the brain's response as event-related potentials (ERPs).

However, when longer segments or entire pieces of music serve as auditory stimuli, measuring the brain's response to relevant music features requires a different approach. Researchers employ Music Information Retrieval (MIR) tools to quantify acoustic and musical features within the piece and analyze the electroencephalogram (EEG) data as a function of these musical elements. For example, Poikonen and colleagues recorded the EEG signals of musicians, dancers, and laypersons while they listened to a segment from Bizet-Shchedrin's Carmen. 

In another condition, participants were presented with an audiovisual segment, including modern dance choreographed to the same piece of music. Using MIR, researchers identified features such as timbral brightness in the music and calculated the corresponding ERPs. They found that dancers had a stronger P50 response to rapid changes in timbral brightness compared to musicians and laypersons. Additionally, when music was paired with dance, the N100 and P200 responses of all participants were both inhibited and accelerated. Thus, employing the MIR toolbox allows for a nuanced neuroscientific study of music over extended durations.

Other studies have utilized shorter musical phrases or beats as stimuli, using event-related potential (ERP) methods to explore the neural underpinnings of musical syntax processing. Like the linguistic P600 response triggered by syntactic violations, an unexpected pitch at the end of a musical phrase can elicit a similar P600 reaction. Another notable ERP is the mismatch negativity (MMN), which measures the neural precision of sound perception and cognition. MMN is triggered by an occasional deviant stimulus interrupting a regular sound sequence. Vuust and colleagues developed an ecologically valid MMN musical paradigm by using an In later MMN paradigms, the notes' rhythms were looped, with pitches varying randomly.

&nbsp;
<h2>Study Participants</h2>
&nbsp;
Over the past few decades, the demographics of participants in neuroscience music studies have diversified significantly. Early investigations often compared musicians to laypersons and categorized musicians based on traits like absolute pitch. Later, classifications of musicians became more nuanced, considering factors such as traditional training versus self-taught approaches, as well as musical style and instrument type.

Traditionally, these studies focused on healthy adults. However, the scope has widened to include adults with congenital amusia and individuals with neurological or psychiatric conditions like dystonia, stroke with or without acquired amusia, and depression. More recently, cognitive neuroscience methods have been applied in extensive cross-sectional and longitudinal studies under music medicine and therapy, involving these and other diverse populations.

Beyond adults, children have been recruited for music studies to delve into the cerebral underpinnings of musical learning and understand the transfer effects of musical training on non-musical auditory and cognitive skills, such as language development. Further research has explored music's role in treating neurocognitive disorders, including dyslexia and auditory processing disorders.

To understand the impact of early auditory learning, researchers have focused on full-term infants and neonates. Some studies have also involved mothers and their newborns to investigate if prenatal auditory experiences are reflected in the neonates' EEG as event-related potentials (ERPs) and subcortical frequency following responses.

In summary, data collection in music brain research has expanded to include individuals across the entire lifespan, both neurotypical and atypical. However, most of these studies have focused on Western music, highlighting an urgent need for expanded research into non-Western music. Consequently, the cross-cultural neuroscience of music requires the accumulation of more experience and data from studies involving non-Western musical forms.

&nbsp;
<h2>Data Collection Methods and Context</h2>
&nbsp;
Technological advancements have extended the application of EEG beyond traditional laboratory settings, allowing for use in environments such as schools and day-care centers. As EEG technology has evolved, it now supports recording and analyzing subjects during broader ranges of movement. This development enables the capture of EEG data from performers playing instruments and listeners moving to music. Subjects can be monitored while playing sequences on a keyboard, with their finger movements, Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) data, and EEG recorded simultaneously.

Notably, modern concert halls equipped with technology to record physiological signals, including EEG, muscle activity, skin conductance, and heart rate, during live performances, open new avenues for understanding music listening and performance. Facilities like Canada's McMaster University's LIVELab and the ArtLab at the Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics in Frankfurt, Germany, can measure EEG and other physiological data in auditoriums and stages. Additionally, laboratories such as the fourMs lab at the University of Oslo in Norway and Casa Paganini at the University of Genoa in Italy are advancing the collection of multimodal data in real-world settings. Finland's Aalto University's Magicsvi project, which integrates virtual reality into artistic performance and learning, exemplifies the innovative direction of this field. The data from these laboratories, combined with participants' self-reported experiences like immersion in music and emotional responses, are expected to yield exciting insights into the artistic and scientific facets of music.

It is anticipated that the aforementioned advancements will serve as a catalyst, inspiring further interest and innovation in the study of naturalistic paradigms in music, and providing novel perspectives for exploring the neuroscience of music.[:]

How might one listen to the brain through music and interpret the neuroscience of music through naturalism?

[:en]How might one listen to the brain through music and interpret the neuroscience of music through naturalism?[:]

Language and music permeate our daily lives, serving as conduits for communication and emotional expression, and refining our sensibilities. Both involve processing that generates structured representations from basic units. While language and music manifest in different units (such as phonemes, morphemes, notes, and chords), they each combine discrete units into structures with defined hierarchical layers. Studies have found that left-brain regions often associated with music overlap with language areas, including the superior temporal gyrus, inferior frontal gyrus, and inferior parietal lobule.
However, substantive distinctions exist between language and music, including differences in rhythmic structure, pitch usage, the &#8216;meaning&#8217; of representational units, structural building mechanisms, and scope of application. Some argue that music and language are separable cognitive resources. Certain aspects of language, such as speech perception, are distinct from music in the brain. Yet, many other aspects of language processing have not been as extensively explored. Particularly, criteria for measuring the complexity of language and music await further exploration at high spatiotemporal resolution. Given the apparent differences in structural building mechanisms between language and music, specific measures of structural sensitivity may be required to capture domain-specific effects.
To this end, Professor Nitin Tandon and his team have employed intracranial recording methods combined with high spatiotemporal resolution to monitor cortical activity during causal perturbations. They have investigated the spatiotemporal dynamics of music and language structure processing in an epileptic patient. This involved domain-specific complexity analyses and direct cortical stimulation imaging during awake craniotomy. Their findings, published in iScience in July 2023, reveal that music and language, while sharing neural resources, exhibit distinct characteristics when processing domain-specific structures.
&nbsp; 
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="size-large wp-image-1550 alignleft" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-1-1024x579.png" alt="" width="1024" height="579" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-1-1024x579.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-1-300x170.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-1-768x434.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-1.png 1063w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /> 
Figure 1: Research Paper Cover. Figure source: iScience official website. 
&nbsp;
<h2>Subjects and Task Paradigms</h2>
The subject of the study is a male professional musician with extensive piano experience dating back to his childhood, who recently began experiencing epileptic seizures leading to transient aphasia. Before the surgery, he completed all the pre-operative tests that were later conducted in the operating room. He excelled in all the language and music tasks during the baseline phase, scoring 172 out of 180 on the Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia (MBEA). Additionally, he engaged in finger tapping exercises on piano keys and practiced freeform playing to familiarize himself with the keyboard setup.
Professor Nitin Tandon and his team collected data from the subject through three behavioral tasks: (1) auditory sentence repetition, where the patient repeated spoken sentences; (2) melody repetition, where he replicated a six-note sequence using one hand on a MIDI keyboard; and (3) auditory naming task, provide one-word answers to definitions of common objects. 
Research Findings
1. ECoG Imaging Characteristics of Music and Language
During the sentence and melody repetition tasks, researchers concurrently recorded the subject&#8217;s specific brain region ECoG activity (Figure 2). In the 100-400 milliseconds post-presentation of each word, 28 lateral electrodes were notably more active than the baseline. These vibrant language electrode sites were distributed across the posterior temporal cortex and inferior frontal cortex. During the melody task, as each note was presented, 11 electrodes within the same time window were significantly active for each tone, mostly clustered around the posterior superior temporal gyrus (pSTG). Seven electrodes were significantly active in both music and language perception, primarily located in the pSTG. In the process of language production, two electrodes in the ventral precentral gyrus were distinctly active.
&nbsp;
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1551" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-2.png" alt="" width="832" height="306" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-2.png 832w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-2-300x110.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-2-768x282.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 832px) 100vw, 832px" />
Figure 2: ECoG Activity for Music and Language. Figure source: The paper.
2. Modulation of Broadband High Gamma Activity by the Complexity of Musical and Linguistic Stimuli
For the musical tasks, an electrode in the posterior middle temporal gyrus (pMTG), near the upper boundary of the pSTG, exhibited a significant interaction between complexity and note position. Compared to sequences of lower complexity, high-complexity sequences elicited a greater increase in broadband high gamma activity (Figure 3A). This indicates that the electrode is significantly active in processing both language and music.
When comparing language stimuli based on syntactic complexity, two electrodes on the pSTG demonstrated an increase in BGA (Figure 3B). This suggests that these electrodes are significantly active in both language and music processing. However, the percentage change in BGA during language production was less than that during music production, possibly due to more pronounced differences between musical sequences.
The research also analyzed the low-frequency responses (2-15 Hz and 15-30 Hz) for these same language and music contrasts and found no significant interaction between electrode position and complexity. However, during sentence production, an electrode in the inferior frontal cortex showed a stronger response to syntactic complexity approximately 200-300 milliseconds after the onset of articulation (Figure 3C).
&nbsp;
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1552" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-3.png" alt="" width="832" height="794" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-3.png 832w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-3-300x286.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-3-768x733.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 832px) 100vw, 832px" />
Figure 3: Intraoperative ECoG of Musical and Syntactic Complexity. Figure source: The paper.
&nbsp;
3. Cortical Stimulation Imaging of Language and Music
Beyond ECoG tasks, researchers delved into direct cortical stimulation mapping (CSM) analysis, primarily to observe changes in language and music processing before and after resection in the posterior and middle temporal regions (Figure 4). In the CSM analysis, five sites in the posterior superior temporal gyrus (pSTG) were positive for sentence repetition, leading to disruptions in comprehension. Only two sites in pSTG testing were CSM negative for sentence repetition. In the auditory naming task, three sites in the posterior middle temporal gyrus (pMTG) were CSM positive, with no significant impacts on language task production and comprehension observed.
In the realm of music tasks, CSM primarily characterized music perception or production. Six sites clustered in the pSTG were CSM positive. These six CSM music-positive sites were categorized based on the timing of CSM application during trials. The patient typically introduced &#8220;interference&#8221; while attempting to play or simply failed to select the next note in the melody. Two sites in the ventral temporal cortex were tested for music perception and production, both showing CSM negativity. As depicted in Figure 4, there is a notable overlap between language and music-related sites in the pSTG region. During the CSM language mapping process, the patient&#8217;s subjective reports indicated interference with verbal working memory and, additionally, memory access.
&nbsp;
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1553" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-4.png" alt="" width="654" height="582" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-4.png 654w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-4-300x267.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 654px) 100vw, 654px" />
Figure 4: Intraoperative Stimulation Tests for Music and Language Perception. Figure source: The paper.
&nbsp;
Conclusion
Language and music processing involves effectively combining basic units into structures. It remains to be clarified whether brain regions sensitive to language and music structures are co-located. This study found that stimulating the pSTG disrupted both the perception and production of music, and both the pSTG and pMTG are activated by language and music during language production. Activity in the pMTG is modulated by musical complexity, while activity in the pSTG is modulated by syntactic complexity. This suggests that while music and language share brain resources, they exhibit distinct neural characteristics when processing specific domain structures.
The hallmark of this research is the use of an epileptic subject who is a trained musician, providing a unique model for understanding the neural mechanisms of language and music. Researchers conducted various behavioral tasks and synchronous recordings of intracranial electrophysiological activity on the subject, offering significant insights into the neural underpinnings of these cognitive domains.

[:en]Language and music permeate our daily lives, serving as conduits for communication and emotional expression, and refining our sensibilities. Both involve processing that generates structured representations from basic units. While language and music manifest in different units (such as phonemes, morphemes, notes, and chords), they each combine discrete units into structures with defined hierarchical layers. Studies have found that left-brain regions often associated with music overlap with language areas, including the superior temporal gyrus, inferior frontal gyrus, and inferior parietal lobule.

However, substantive distinctions exist between language and music, including differences in rhythmic structure, pitch usage, the 'meaning' of representational units, structural building mechanisms, and scope of application. Some argue that music and language are separable cognitive resources. Certain aspects of language, such as speech perception, are distinct from music in the brain. Yet, many other aspects of language processing have not been as extensively explored. Particularly, criteria for measuring the complexity of language and music await further exploration at high spatiotemporal resolution. Given the apparent differences in structural building mechanisms between language and music, specific measures of structural sensitivity may be required to capture domain-specific effects.

To this end, Professor Nitin Tandon and his team have employed intracranial recording methods combined with high spatiotemporal resolution to monitor cortical activity during causal perturbations. They have investigated the spatiotemporal dynamics of music and language structure processing in an epileptic patient. This involved domain-specific complexity analyses and direct cortical stimulation imaging during awake craniotomy. Their findings, published in iScience in July 2023, reveal that music and language, while sharing neural resources, exhibit distinct characteristics when processing domain-specific structures.

&nbsp;
<img class="size-large wp-image-1550 alignleft" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-1-1024x579.png" alt="" width="1024" height="579" />
Figure 1: Research Paper Cover. Figure source: iScience official website.
&nbsp;

<h2>Subjects and Task Paradigms</h2>

The subject of the study is a male professional musician with extensive piano experience dating back to his childhood, who recently began experiencing epileptic seizures leading to transient aphasia. Before the surgery, he completed all the pre-operative tests that were later conducted in the operating room. He excelled in all the language and music tasks during the baseline phase, scoring 172 out of 180 on the Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia (MBEA). Additionally, he engaged in finger tapping exercises on piano keys and practiced freeform playing to familiarize himself with the keyboard setup.

Professor Nitin Tandon and his team collected data from the subject through three behavioral tasks: (1) auditory sentence repetition, where the patient repeated spoken sentences; (2) melody repetition, where he replicated a six-note sequence using one hand on a MIDI keyboard; and (3) auditory naming task, provide one-word answers to definitions of common objects.
Research Findings

1. ECoG Imaging Characteristics of Music and Language

During the sentence and melody repetition tasks, researchers concurrently recorded the subject's specific brain region ECoG activity (Figure 2). In the 100-400 milliseconds post-presentation of each word, 28 lateral electrodes were notably more active than the baseline. These vibrant language electrode sites were distributed across the posterior temporal cortex and inferior frontal cortex. During the melody task, as each note was presented, 11 electrodes within the same time window were significantly active for each tone, mostly clustered around the posterior superior temporal gyrus (pSTG). Seven electrodes were significantly active in both music and language perception, primarily located in the pSTG. In the process of language production, two electrodes in the ventral precentral gyrus were distinctly active.

&nbsp;

<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1551" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-2.png" alt="" width="832" height="306" />
Figure 2: ECoG Activity for Music and Language. Figure source: The paper.

2. Modulation of Broadband High Gamma Activity by the Complexity of Musical and Linguistic Stimuli

For the musical tasks, an electrode in the posterior middle temporal gyrus (pMTG), near the upper boundary of the pSTG, exhibited a significant interaction between complexity and note position. Compared to sequences of lower complexity, high-complexity sequences elicited a greater increase in broadband high gamma activity (Figure 3A). This indicates that the electrode is significantly active in processing both language and music.

When comparing language stimuli based on syntactic complexity, two electrodes on the pSTG demonstrated an increase in BGA (Figure 3B). This suggests that these electrodes are significantly active in both language and music processing. However, the percentage change in BGA during language production was less than that during music production, possibly due to more pronounced differences between musical sequences.

The research also analyzed the low-frequency responses (2-15 Hz and 15-30 Hz) for these same language and music contrasts and found no significant interaction between electrode position and complexity. However, during sentence production, an electrode in the inferior frontal cortex showed a stronger response to syntactic complexity approximately 200-300 milliseconds after the onset of articulation (Figure 3C).

&nbsp;

<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1552" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-3.png" alt="" width="832" height="794" />
Figure 3: Intraoperative ECoG of Musical and Syntactic Complexity. Figure source: The paper.
&nbsp;

3. Cortical Stimulation Imaging of Language and Music

Beyond ECoG tasks, researchers delved into direct cortical stimulation mapping (CSM) analysis, primarily to observe changes in language and music processing before and after resection in the posterior and middle temporal regions (Figure 4). In the CSM analysis, five sites in the posterior superior temporal gyrus (pSTG) were positive for sentence repetition, leading to disruptions in comprehension. Only two sites in pSTG testing were CSM negative for sentence repetition. In the auditory naming task, three sites in the posterior middle temporal gyrus (pMTG) were CSM positive, with no significant impacts on language task production and comprehension observed.

In the realm of music tasks, CSM primarily characterized music perception or production. Six sites clustered in the pSTG were CSM positive. These six CSM music-positive sites were categorized based on the timing of CSM application during trials. The patient typically introduced "interference" while attempting to play or simply failed to select the next note in the melody. Two sites in the ventral temporal cortex were tested for music perception and production, both showing CSM negativity. As depicted in Figure 4, there is a notable overlap between language and music-related sites in the pSTG region. During the CSM language mapping process, the patient's subjective reports indicated interference with verbal working memory and, additionally, memory access.

&nbsp;

<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1553" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/music-4.png" alt="" width="654" height="582" />
Figure 4: Intraoperative Stimulation Tests for Music and Language Perception. Figure source: The paper.
&nbsp;

Conclusion

Language and music processing involves effectively combining basic units into structures. It remains to be clarified whether brain regions sensitive to language and music structures are co-located. This study found that stimulating the pSTG disrupted both the perception and production of music, and both the pSTG and pMTG are activated by language and music during language production. Activity in the pMTG is modulated by musical complexity, while activity in the pSTG is modulated by syntactic complexity. This suggests that while music and language share brain resources, they exhibit distinct neural characteristics when processing specific domain structures.

The hallmark of this research is the use of an epileptic subject who is a trained musician, providing a unique model for understanding the neural mechanisms of language and music. Researchers conducted various behavioral tasks and synchronous recordings of intracranial electrophysiological activity on the subject, offering significant insights into the neural underpinnings of these cognitive domains.[:]

Is Music a Language? High Spatiotemporal Resolution Recordings of the Cerebral Cortex in Search of Answers

[:en]Is Music a Language? High Spatiotemporal Resolution Recordings of the Cerebral Cortex in Search of Answers[:]

As we navigate our environment, observing moving objects or experiencing shifting vistas as we move, we engage in a process known as visual motion. Numerous methods exist for studying visual motion, including electroencephalography (EEG). Traditionally, investigating visual motion with EEG requires stringent experimental conditions, which can limit its ecological validity.
In real-world scenarios, our brains integrate complex, dynamic, multimodal visual motion cues to guide the execution of movements. Researchers have identified the parieto-occipital cortex as a key brain region involved in controlling goal-directed movements such as reaching, grasping, catching, or avoiding objects. The fast-paced game of ping-pong, for example, demands rapid, full-body reactive integration of visual motion cues. To understand the neuronal activity in the parieto-occipital cortex during real-world ping-pong play, a research team from the University of Florida conducted a study using high-density scalp EEG for quantitative analysis of the electrodynamics in this area.
This research examined differences in power spectral density, event-related spectral perturbations, inter-trial phase coherence, event-related potentials, and event-related phase coherence in parieto-occipital source localization clusters. Subjects played ping-pong against both a robot and a human opponent. The results showed that playing against a robot led to greater θ-band power fluctuations before and after hitting the ball, stronger inter-phase consistency, more pronounced deflections in event-related potentials, and increased event-related coherence among parieto-occipital neural clusters, compared to playing against a human. The researchers concluded that robot-assisted motion training elicits distinct brain dynamics compared to human-assisted training, resulting in heightened brain engagement. These findings were published in eNeuro. 
&nbsp; 
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1537" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-1.png" alt="" width="456" height="178" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-1.png 456w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-1-300x117.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 456px) 100vw, 456px" />
Figure 1: The cover of the research paper. Source: eNeuro.
&nbsp; 
Table tennis, a sport requiring reactive agility, offers a rich context for research into sensory-motor integration, anticipatory movement, and neural control mechanisms of object interception. The close proximity of opponents in a match necessitates rapid perception, planning, and striking within fractions of a second. Studies have shown that professional table tennis players, compared to non-athletes, exhibit quicker reflexes, faster hand movements, and more efficient visual-motor integration skills.
Additionally, table tennis has been found to mitigate cognitive decline, enhance executive functions, and sharpen mental acuity when used as a therapeutic intervention. Investigating table tennis&#8217; neural control mechanisms aids in understanding the neurophysiological principles behind these benefits.
In this research, 37 participants, all right-handed, with an average age of 23.5 years, normal vision, good health, and proficient table tennis skills, were involved. Each participant wore an EEG system equipped with 120 scalp electrodes during the experiments, with brain electrical activity recorded at 500 Hz. The table tennis rackets had wooden handles fitted with inertial measurement units for precise timing of ball-striking events. Video recordings were also made of all experimental sessions to verify the accuracy of the hit events.
The experiment was divided into four 15-minute intervals, with each interval consisting of 7.5 minutes of play against a human player and three consecutive 2.5-minute sessions against a robot. The robot sessions alternated between static and dynamic states. In static trials, the ball&#8217;s trajectory was predictable, requiring no movement from the participants to strike the ball. In dynamic trials, the robot varied the ball&#8217;s direction on the table, necessitating participant movement to hit the ball. 
&nbsp; 
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1542" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-3.jpg" alt="" width="757" height="488" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-3.jpg 757w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-3-300x193.jpg 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 757px) 100vw, 757px" />
Figure 3: Cortical dipoles for all subjects. Axial view (left), sagittal view (center), and coronal view (right). Left frontal lobe (purple), right frontal lobe (magenta), left sensorimotor area (cyan), supplementary motor area (yellow), right sensorimotor area (dark red), left parieto-occipital area (light green), anterior cingulate area (blue), right parieto-occipital area (red), cingulate area (dark green). Source: From the paper.
&nbsp; 
The research compared brain electrical activity in the parieto-occipital area when subjects played against human players and robots. The power spectral density (PSD) graphs of the parieto-occipital clusters revealed both non-oscillatory and oscillatory components, with oscillatory power predominantly in the α and low beta bands for both human and robot opponents. Notably, the left parieto-occipital cortex showed higher α power during human trials than robot trials, while the anterior cingulate&#8217;s α power was higher during robot play. No significant differences were observed in the right parieto-occipital cortex and cingulate cortex between the two trial types. 
&nbsp; 
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1541" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-4.png" alt="" width="482" height="647" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-4.png 482w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-4-223x300.png 223w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 482px) 100vw, 482px" />
Figure 4: Power spectra during play against human players (left, blue) and robots (center, magenta). The average power spectral density with non-periodic fitting by the FOOOF model (gray). The flattened spectrum (right), calculated by subtracting the non-periodic component, compares trials against human players (blue) and robots (magenta). Source: From the paper.
&nbsp; 
During human play, the left parieto-occipital cluster&#8217;s event-related spectral perturbations displayed desynchronization in the α and β bands after receiving the ball and synchronization before striking the ball. Robot play, in contrast, showed additional θ and α desynchronization before receiving the ball and increased phase consistency in these bands around 500ms after the robot served the ball. Compared to human play, robot play also exhibited stronger deflections and phase consistency in event-related potentials, with more pronounced phase-locked activity. 
&nbsp; 
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1540" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-5.png" alt="" width="592" height="629" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-5.png 592w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-5-282x300.png 282w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 592px) 100vw, 592px" />
Figure 5: Comparison of time-frequency characteristics during play against human players and robots. Average results for the left parieto-occipital cluster group during trials against human players (left) and robots (center). Significant differences (right) are indicated in orange (p &lt; 0.05). Source: From the paper.
&nbsp; 
Moreover, event-related phase coherence was observed in the θ, α, and γ bands among the parieto-occipital clusters. θ coherence occurred at the appearance of the ball and about 250 ms afterward. Robot trials demonstrated higher event-related phase coherences than human trials, with statistically significant differences in coherence between the anterior cingulate and left/right parieto-occipital lobes. Specifically, the anterior cingulate&#8217;s θ coherence with the left parieto-occipital cluster was stronger in robot trials at the ball&#8217;s appearance, and with the right cluster, it was stronger both at the ball&#8217;s appearance and around 250ms afterward. 
&nbsp; 
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1539" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-6.png" alt="" width="919" height="944" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-6.png 919w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-6-292x300.png 292w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-6-768x789.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 919px) 100vw, 919px" />
Figure 6: Phase consistency during trials against human players and robots. Comparing trials against human players (blue, lower diagonal) and robots (magenta, upper diagonal). Increases in event-related consistency significance are marked in red (p &lt; 0.05). Source: From the paper.
&nbsp; 
In summary, the research revealed distinct dynamics in the parieto-occipital cortex&#8217;s neuronal activity related to table tennis strokes, with notable differences between playing against humans and robots. Key differences included greater θ power fluctuations in the brain during robot play at stroke events and higher event-related coherence among parieto-occipital clusters. The increased brain activity while waiting for the robot to serve may stem from the absence of human-like cues, such as racket swings, requiring players to stay fully alert to respond quickly to the robot&#8217;s unpredictable strokes.
The research underscores that our brains process these two experiences very differently, suggesting that training with machines might not replicate the experience of playing against real opponents.
&nbsp; 
Author&#8217;s self-evaluation:
Daniel P. Ferris:
Robots are increasingly becoming integral to our daily lives. Some companies are building robots designed to interact with humans, while others are focused on developing social assistive robots to help the elderly. The interaction between humans and robots is distinct from that of human-to-human interaction. Our long-term goal is to understand how the brain responds to these differences.
This research reveals that when competing against another person, players&#8217; neurons tend to synchronize their activity. However, when facing a robotic opponent, these neurons tend to desynchronize. Imagine a football stadium with 100,000 people cheering in unison; this represents brain synchronization, indicating a relaxed state of the brain. Conversely, if these 100,000 people were all chatting with friends, their activities would be unsynchronized, akin to brain desynchronization. Brain desynchronization often suggests that the brain is engaged in extensive computations.
Amanda Studnicki:
Table tennis, a sport that involves multiple senses like vision, balance (vestibular sense), and hearing, provides crucial information to the central brain for creating motor plans. While researchers have studied simple movements such as reaching and grasping in static tasks, our aim is to understand how the brain processes more complex actions, like tracking and intercepting a moving ball. Table tennis, therefore, serves as an ideal subject for study. Training with robots, we believe, is incredibly valuable. As sports robots continue to evolve over the next 10 to 20 years, we anticipate seeing an increased use of robots in player training.

[:en]As we navigate our environment, observing moving objects or experiencing shifting vistas as we move, we engage in a process known as visual motion. Numerous methods exist for studying visual motion, including electroencephalography (EEG). Traditionally, investigating visual motion with EEG requires stringent experimental conditions, which can limit its ecological validity.

In real-world scenarios, our brains integrate complex, dynamic, multimodal visual motion cues to guide the execution of movements. Researchers have identified the parieto-occipital cortex as a key brain region involved in controlling goal-directed movements such as reaching, grasping, catching, or avoiding objects. The fast-paced game of ping-pong, for example, demands rapid, full-body reactive integration of visual motion cues. To understand the neuronal activity in the parieto-occipital cortex during real-world ping-pong play, a research team from the University of Florida conducted a study using high-density scalp EEG for quantitative analysis of the electrodynamics in this area.

This research examined differences in power spectral density, event-related spectral perturbations, inter-trial phase coherence, event-related potentials, and event-related phase coherence in parieto-occipital source localization clusters. Subjects played ping-pong against both a robot and a human opponent. The results showed that playing against a robot led to greater θ-band power fluctuations before and after hitting the ball, stronger inter-phase consistency, more pronounced deflections in event-related potentials, and increased event-related coherence among parieto-occipital neural clusters, compared to playing against a human. The researchers concluded that robot-assisted motion training elicits distinct brain dynamics compared to human-assisted training, resulting in heightened brain engagement. These findings were published in eNeuro.
&nbsp;
<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1537" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-1.png" alt="" width="456" height="178" />
Figure 1: The cover of the research paper. Source: eNeuro.
&nbsp;
Table tennis, a sport requiring reactive agility, offers a rich context for research into sensory-motor integration, anticipatory movement, and neural control mechanisms of object interception. The close proximity of opponents in a match necessitates rapid perception, planning, and striking within fractions of a second. Studies have shown that professional table tennis players, compared to non-athletes, exhibit quicker reflexes, faster hand movements, and more efficient visual-motor integration skills.

Additionally, table tennis has been found to mitigate cognitive decline, enhance executive functions, and sharpen mental acuity when used as a therapeutic intervention. Investigating table tennis' neural control mechanisms aids in understanding the neurophysiological principles behind these benefits.

In this research, 37 participants, all right-handed, with an average age of 23.5 years, normal vision, good health, and proficient table tennis skills, were involved. Each participant wore an EEG system equipped with 120 scalp electrodes during the experiments, with brain electrical activity recorded at 500 Hz. The table tennis rackets had wooden handles fitted with inertial measurement units for precise timing of ball-striking events. Video recordings were also made of all experimental sessions to verify the accuracy of the hit events.

The experiment was divided into four 15-minute intervals, with each interval consisting of 7.5 minutes of play against a human player and three consecutive 2.5-minute sessions against a robot. The robot sessions alternated between static and dynamic states. In static trials, the ball's trajectory was predictable, requiring no movement from the participants to strike the ball. In dynamic trials, the robot varied the ball's direction on the table, necessitating participant movement to hit the ball.
&nbsp;
<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1542" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-3.jpg" alt="" width="757" height="488" />
Figure 3: Cortical dipoles for all subjects. Axial view (left), sagittal view (center), and coronal view (right). Left frontal lobe (purple), right frontal lobe (magenta), left sensorimotor area (cyan), supplementary motor area (yellow), right sensorimotor area (dark red), left parieto-occipital area (light green), anterior cingulate area (blue), right parieto-occipital area (red), cingulate area (dark green). Source: From the paper.
&nbsp;
The research compared brain electrical activity in the parieto-occipital area when subjects played against human players and robots. The power spectral density (PSD) graphs of the parieto-occipital clusters revealed both non-oscillatory and oscillatory components, with oscillatory power predominantly in the α and low beta bands for both human and robot opponents. Notably, the left parieto-occipital cortex showed higher α power during human trials than robot trials, while the anterior cingulate's α power was higher during robot play. No significant differences were observed in the right parieto-occipital cortex and cingulate cortex between the two trial types.
&nbsp;
<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1541" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-4.png" alt="" width="482" height="647" />
Figure 4: Power spectra during play against human players (left, blue) and robots (center, magenta). The average power spectral density with non-periodic fitting by the FOOOF model (gray). The flattened spectrum (right), calculated by subtracting the non-periodic component, compares trials against human players (blue) and robots (magenta). Source: From the paper.
&nbsp;
During human play, the left parieto-occipital cluster's event-related spectral perturbations displayed desynchronization in the α and β bands after receiving the ball and synchronization before striking the ball. Robot play, in contrast, showed additional θ and α desynchronization before receiving the ball and increased phase consistency in these bands around 500ms after the robot served the ball. Compared to human play, robot play also exhibited stronger deflections and phase consistency in event-related potentials, with more pronounced phase-locked activity.
&nbsp;
<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1540" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-5.png" alt="" width="592" height="629" />
Figure 5: Comparison of time-frequency characteristics during play against human players and robots. Average results for the left parieto-occipital cluster group during trials against human players (left) and robots (center). Significant differences (right) are indicated in orange (p &lt; 0.05). Source: From the paper.
&nbsp;
Moreover, event-related phase coherence was observed in the θ, α, and γ bands among the parieto-occipital clusters. θ coherence occurred at the appearance of the ball and about 250 ms afterward. Robot trials demonstrated higher event-related phase coherences than human trials, with statistically significant differences in coherence between the anterior cingulate and left/right parieto-occipital lobes. Specifically, the anterior cingulate's θ coherence with the left parieto-occipital cluster was stronger in robot trials at the ball's appearance, and with the right cluster, it was stronger both at the ball's appearance and around 250ms afterward.
&nbsp;
<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1539" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/PPP-6.png" alt="" width="919" height="944" />
Figure 6: Phase consistency during trials against human players and robots. Comparing trials against human players (blue, lower diagonal) and robots (magenta, upper diagonal). Increases in event-related consistency significance are marked in red (p &lt; 0.05). Source: From the paper.
&nbsp;
In summary, the research revealed distinct dynamics in the parieto-occipital cortex's neuronal activity related to table tennis strokes, with notable differences between playing against humans and robots. Key differences included greater θ power fluctuations in the brain during robot play at stroke events and higher event-related coherence among parieto-occipital clusters. The increased brain activity while waiting for the robot to serve may stem from the absence of human-like cues, such as racket swings, requiring players to stay fully alert to respond quickly to the robot's unpredictable strokes.

The research underscores that our brains process these two experiences very differently, suggesting that training with machines might not replicate the experience of playing against real opponents.

&nbsp;
Author's self-evaluation:

Daniel P. Ferris:

Robots are increasingly becoming integral to our daily lives. Some companies are building robots designed to interact with humans, while others are focused on developing social assistive robots to help the elderly. The interaction between humans and robots is distinct from that of human-to-human interaction. Our long-term goal is to understand how the brain responds to these differences.

This research reveals that when competing against another person, players' neurons tend to synchronize their activity. However, when facing a robotic opponent, these neurons tend to desynchronize. Imagine a football stadium with 100,000 people cheering in unison; this represents brain synchronization, indicating a relaxed state of the brain. Conversely, if these 100,000 people were all chatting with friends, their activities would be unsynchronized, akin to brain desynchronization. Brain desynchronization often suggests that the brain is engaged in extensive computations.

Amanda Studnicki:

Table tennis, a sport that involves multiple senses like vision, balance (vestibular sense), and hearing, provides crucial information to the central brain for creating motor plans. While researchers have studied simple movements such as reaching and grasping in static tasks, our aim is to understand how the brain processes more complex actions, like tracking and intercepting a moving ball. Table tennis, therefore, serves as an ideal subject for study. Training with robots, we believe, is incredibly valuable. As sports robots continue to evolve over the next 10 to 20 years, we anticipate seeing an increased use of robots in player training.[:]

Playing Ping-Pong with Robots: Does It Excite Our Brains More

[:en]Playing Ping-Pong with Robots: Does It Excite Our Brains More[:]

Interview with Prof. Moritz Helmstaedter: The decade-long debate has concluded, Has the European Brain Project failed?

[:en]Interview with Prof. Moritz Helmstaedter: The decade-long debate has concluded, Has the European Brain Project failed?[:zh]十年争议落幕，欧洲脑计划失败了吗？｜追问专访·Moritz Helmstaedter[:]

Meeting Reports

The Brain: The Universe&#8217;s Most Complex System. For a long time, humans have endeavored to unravel the brain&#8217;s inner mechanisms, yet progress has been somewhat sluggish, constrained by technological and methodological limitations. However, with the advent of artificial intelligence technology, unprecedented opportunities have emerged for brain science research.
On June 21st, the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI), in collaboration with Neurochat, initiated the fourth TCCI-Neurochat Online Academic Conference. On the opening day, Professor Xiao-Jing Wang from New York University delivered a keynote address titled &#8216;Theoretical Neuroscience in the Age of Artificial Intelligence&#8217;. He shared insights into the integration of artificial intelligence with neuroscience from a theoretical perspective, aiming to advance research in the field.
Theoretical or Computational Neuroscience involves applying mathematical theories to understand how the brain operates. Similar to the role of theoretical physics in the field of physics, theoretical neuroscience plays a crucial role in brain research, complementing experimental studies. Experimentation alone may not fully reveal how the brain functions on multiple levels. Theoretical neuroscience transforms neurons and neural networks into mathematical models and algorithms, thus building a bridge between brain science and AI. With advancements in experimental tools and the advent of big data, theoretical research and modeling have become increasingly essential.
&nbsp;
<h2>Brain Functions Beyond AI’s Reach</h2>
The technological revolution in the AI field is often traced back to the year 2012. That year, Geoffrey Hinton’s research team demonstrated that deep neural networks could perform visual object recognition tasks. It&#8217;s well-known that different cortical areas of the brain correspond to different functions. Similarly, the various layers of deep neural networks are often analogized to brain regions such as V1, V2, and V4. However, the prefrontal cortex (PFC), situated just above the eyes, is still not sufficiently understood. Additionally, a functional equivalent of the PFC in contemporary machine systems has yet to be determined.
This enigmatic PFC region is crucial for various cognitive functions, including working memory and decision-making. Working memory refers to the brain&#8217;s capacity to maintain and manipulate information internally, thus enabling focus on inner thoughts without external distractions.  Decision-making involves making choices under uncertainty.
In laboratories, working memory is typically studied using delay-dependent tasks. For example, a monkey is shown the location of food and then subjected to a delay phase of 5 or 10 seconds. During this delay, the monkey must remember whether the food was placed on the left or the right. After the delay, the monkey retrieves the food based on memory, not direct sensory stimuli (the food itself). In the early 1970s, using single-cell recording and electrical stimulation, it was discovered that individual PFC cells remained active during the delay phase. These neurons were not active before the stimulus and did not react to the stimulus itself but showed continued activity during the delay, which intensified as the delay period doubled. This phenomenon is known as &#8216;stimulus-selective persistent activity&#8217;.
<div id="attachment_1405" style="width: 610px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1405" class="wp-image-1405" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/微信图片_20240110173424-1-1024x768.png" alt="" width="600" height="450" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/微信图片_20240110173424-1-1024x768.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/微信图片_20240110173424-1-300x225.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/微信图片_20240110173424-1-768x576.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/微信图片_20240110173424-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />Caption: Delay-Dependent Task. Figure courtesy of Professor Xiao-Jing Wang.</div>
In the study of decision-making, a simple yet ingenious experiment stands out: the two-alternative forced choice. Monkeys are trained to fixate on a point on a screen, and upon its disappearance, they make a decision: determining whether the movement of the point was to the left or to the right. Their decision is expressed through eye movements. The trick lies in the fact that, during any given trial, the proportion of the point&#8217;s movement direction, known as coherence or motion strength, is controllable. If all points move in one direction, the decision is easy. But if only 50% move in the same direction and the rest move randomly, it becomes more challenging. And with a mere 5% coherence, or even 0%, making a subjective judgment becomes exceedingly difficult. Single-cell physiological studies have shown that neurons exhibit ramping activity within milliseconds. This instantaneous and intense activity represents a mechanism through which neurons integrate information, accumulating evidence about different choice options to form a subjective judgment.
Professor Xiao-Jing Wang, through these two experimental examples, strikes at the core of the most complex issues. As the renowned psychologist Donald Hebb once said, &#8216;If one were to explain the delay between stimulus and response with a central neural mechanism, it seems remarkably congruent with the characteristics of thinking.&#8217; When we think, it&#8217;s not driven by direct external stimuli but is an internal brain activity. Delayed activity is a specific instance of internal neuronal group activity.
However, the biological basis of decision-making or choice remains unclear, and AI systems lack this capability. As Noam Chomsky notes, &#8216;Once you get to issues of will or decision or reason or choice of action, human science is at a loss.&#8217;
&nbsp;
<h2>Modeling Based on Biology</h2>
Despite the complexity of real biological processes, relatively simple behavioral paradigms can be used to attempt understanding mechanisms across different levels.
In a physics experiment involving a pendulum, if there is friction in the air, the pendulum&#8217;s amplitude decreases over time, exhibiting an exponential decay. Similarly, neuronal firing also decays over time, with a time constant of approximately 10 milliseconds. To achieve sustained activity in working memory, this issue needs to be addressed. Professor Wang proposes a bold hypothesis: reverberation. That is, if a group of neurons stimulates each other, they can continue to be active even after the input disappears. The strong horizontal connections in layers two and three of the PFC in primates provide a structural basis for this hypothesis.
To test this hypothesis, Professor Wang simplified the complexity by creating a system with only two dynamic variables. This system demonstrates how to integrate random dots, perceptual decision-making, and working memory for judgments and choices.
This model has two selective firing neuronal groups &#8211; a and b. There is reverberation within each neuronal group, but the excitatory selectivity between the two groups is much weaker. They compete through inhibitory neurons, ultimately resulting in a winner. This outcome represents the system&#8217;s choice. The system&#8217;s choice is determined by the motion strength and relative input to groups a and b. When the input disappears, the choice signal remains self-sustained throughout the delay period. This model can explain the basic processes of working memory and decision-making.
<div id="attachment_1404" style="width: 610px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1404" class="wp-image-1404" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1-1-1024x771.png" alt="" width="600" height="452" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1-1-1024x771.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1-1-300x226.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1-1-768x578.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />Caption: (Left) Two-Alternative Forced Choice; (Right) Slow Reverberation Dynamics System. Figure courtesy of Professor Xiao-Jing Wang.</div>
Furthermore, this model operates across multiple levels. By considering reaction time as a function of motion strength, it is observed that the decision-making time increases as the motion strength decreases and the task becomes more difficult. This mirrors our everyday experience, where making a tough choice often requires considerable time to weigh different options. This phenomenon is also reflected in monkey experiments, elucidating why the dynamics of recurrent neural circuits can explain behavior.
Additionally, Professor Wang offers insights from a cellular and molecular perspective. For instance, slow time integration is primarily achieved through excitatory reverberation mediated by NMDA receptors. NMDA receptors are crucial for decision-making and working memory, as tested and confirmed in monkey experiments. If a drug were found that reduces or eliminates NMDA signaling, then neuronal activity would cease.
When considering self-sustained and internal states as functions of recurrent activation strength, and labeling these states with a parameter, it is found that in this model, above a certain parameter threshold, a series of stimulus-selective, persistent states emerge. These states include different memory items in working memory. The emergence of these states can be explained as bifurcations in the dynamic system, where graded changes in parameters lead to different functions and capabilities. This perspective is vital for recurrent neural circuits and is also applicable in multi-regional, large-scale brain systems.
<div id="attachment_1403" style="width: 610px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1403" class="wp-image-1403" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1024x794.png" alt="" width="600" height="465" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1024x794.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-300x233.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-768x595.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />Caption: Sufficiently Strong Recurrent Connections in Working Memory and Decision-Making. Figure courtesy of Professor Xiao-Jing Wang.</div>
Building upon this foundation, we can utilize machine learning to establish neural circuits akin to biological ones, capable of performing 20 different tasks, including working memory, decision-making, categorization, multisensory integration, delay sampling, delay categorization, and more. Once the network successfully executes these nuanced tasks, it enables us to &#8216;open the black box&#8217; for analysis, pose questions, and delve into the dynamics of new circuits and neuronal groups. Neuronal activity can be gauged through task differentiation, and the interactions and organizational patterns among neurons can be deciphered using cluster analysis.
However, even if we design circuits that resemble the PFC, capable of flexibly guiding behavior based on rules, our endeavor should not end there. In reality, any given function involves multiple brain regions, including the PFC, the posterior parietal cortex, and potentially even supra-cortical structures.
&nbsp;
<h2>From Local Networks to Brain Systems</h2>
The interactions between different regions of the brain exhibit a high degree of recursion. As a theoretician, Professor Wang asserts that merely qualitatively sketching their feedback connections is insufficient; he advocates for the clarity and precision of numerical descriptions. Over the past decade, technological advancements have made it feasible to utilize collected data for constructing directed and weighted connection matrices between various regions.
In the cortex of macaque monkeys, when the directed connection weights between two regions are represented in histograms, it is observed that these histograms across multiple regions follow a log-normal distribution. The weight of any pair of regions and their wiring distance exhibit an exponential distribution. This implies that traditional graphical representations of cortical networks fall short, as they are based on topological logic and do not incorporate this specific embedding, failing to reflect the unique relationships between cortical areas. Professor Wang&#8217;s team has developed a new class of mathematical models, specifically designed for this special embedding, enabling the study of real cortical networks.
<div id="attachment_1404" style="width: 610px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1404" class="wp-image-1404" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1-1-1024x771.png" alt="" width="600" height="452" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1-1-1024x771.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1-1-300x226.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1-1-768x578.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />Caption: (Left) Graphical Representation; (Right) Histograms of Directed Connection Weights Between Different Regions and Histograms of Weight Against Wiring Distance. Figure courtesy of Professor Xiao-Jing Wang.</div>
In constructing large-scale cortical models, mathematical modeling of each region is required. Different regions may necessitate distinct mathematical models. Therefore, the process begins by formulating scientific questions and establishing corresponding models based on these inquiries.
In neuroscience, the cortex column is a recognized principle, referring to a columnar structure composed of vertically aligned neurons with similar functional and structural characteristics. This represents a local circuit unit that is repeated many times, consistent across rodents, monkeys, and humans. However, even within the same local circuit, quantitative differences exist that lead to qualitative changes, namely, differences in function and capabilities. Thus, it&#8217;s essential to consider these quantitative variations in model construction.
Professor Wang&#8217;s research has demonstrated the impact of quantitative differences in large-scale systems. By analyzing dendritic spine numbers as a function of layer position, a systematic increase in the number of spines per cell is observed. This microscopic gradient reveals the relationship between the excitation intensity of neurons in different areas. In a recent paper published in Nature Neuroscience, Professor Wang studied the expression gradients of neurotransmitter receptors in the macaque cortex, such as dopamine and serotonin receptors. He discovered a cortical hierarchy in which receptors in higher-level cortical areas have higher density, larger dendrites, and fewer myelin sheaths. This is another example of using mathematical models to quantify changes in biological characteristics.
<div id="attachment_1407" style="width: 610px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1407" class="wp-image-1407" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-4-1024x753.png" alt="" width="600" height="441" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-4-1024x753.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-4-300x221.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-4-768x565.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-4.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />Caption: A Method for Measuring Neuronal Synaptic Inputs Along the Hierarchical Levels of Basal Dendritic Spines of Pyramidal Cells. Figure courtesy of Professor Xiao-Jing Wang.</div>
Beyond the quantitative hierarchy, a hierarchy in time constants also exists. The temporal scales of activity in different regions vary, with some regions having shorter time constants and others longer. For instance, the visual network operates very rapidly. When watching a movie, the sensory input is constantly changing, necessitating a very short time constant for swift reactions. Conversely, in decision-making, neuronal activity incrementally increases, implying the need for a much longer time constant. This has significant implications for cognitive processes such as working memory and decision-making.
Professor Wang also notes that analyzing isolated regions reveals that connections between regions are not only local but also long-distance, forming a bifurcation space. Constructing large-scale cortical models involves both adding linear gradients and analyzing time constants. The hierarchical structure and time constants aid in understanding the impact on large-scale dynamics and function.
Finally, Professor Wang emphasizes that neural circuits are not all alike. Cognitive circuits like those in the PFC, capable of handling both working memory and decision-making simultaneously, present the most thought-provoking issues from an AI perspective.
&nbsp;
<h2>In Conclusion</h2>
Neuroscience, being a complex and fascinating field, is enriched by numerous examples from computational neuroscience in this keynote address. It delves deep into the essence, uncovering patterns and trends hidden in the data and progressively revealing the workings of neural networks. Professor Wang, with his elegant physics and rigorous mathematics, narrates the process of conducting detailed biological research. The content, both profound and accessible, provokes deep reflection.

[:en]The Brain: The Universe's Most Complex System. For a long time, humans have endeavored to unravel the brain's inner mechanisms, yet progress has been somewhat sluggish, constrained by technological and methodological limitations. However, with the advent of artificial intelligence technology, unprecedented opportunities have emerged for brain science research.

On June 21st, the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI), in collaboration with Neurochat, initiated the fourth TCCI-Neurochat Online Academic Conference. On the opening day, Professor Xiao-Jing Wang from New York University delivered a keynote address titled 'Theoretical Neuroscience in the Age of Artificial Intelligence'. He shared insights into the integration of artificial intelligence with neuroscience from a theoretical perspective, aiming to advance research in the field.

Theoretical or Computational Neuroscience involves applying mathematical theories to understand how the brain operates. Similar to the role of theoretical physics in the field of physics, theoretical neuroscience plays a crucial role in brain research, complementing experimental studies. Experimentation alone may not fully reveal how the brain functions on multiple levels. Theoretical neuroscience transforms neurons and neural networks into mathematical models and algorithms, thus building a bridge between brain science and AI. With advancements in experimental tools and the advent of big data, theoretical research and modeling have become increasingly essential.

&nbsp;
<h2>Brain Functions Beyond AI’s Reach</h2>
The technological revolution in the AI field is often traced back to the year 2012. That year, Geoffrey Hinton’s research team demonstrated that deep neural networks could perform visual object recognition tasks. It's well-known that different cortical areas of the brain correspond to different functions. Similarly, the various layers of deep neural networks are often analogized to brain regions such as V1, V2, and V4. However, the prefrontal cortex (PFC), situated just above the eyes, is still not sufficiently understood. Additionally, a functional equivalent of the PFC in contemporary machine systems has yet to be determined.

This enigmatic PFC region is crucial for various cognitive functions, including working memory and decision-making. Working memory refers to the brain's capacity to maintain and manipulate information internally, thus enabling focus on inner thoughts without external distractions.  Decision-making involves making choices under uncertainty.

In laboratories, working memory is typically studied using delay-dependent tasks. For example, a monkey is shown the location of food and then subjected to a delay phase of 5 or 10 seconds. During this delay, the monkey must remember whether the food was placed on the left or the right. After the delay, the monkey retrieves the food based on memory, not direct sensory stimuli (the food itself). In the early 1970s, using single-cell recording and electrical stimulation, it was discovered that individual PFC cells remained active during the delay phase. These neurons were not active before the stimulus and did not react to the stimulus itself but showed continued activity during the delay, which intensified as the delay period doubled. This phenomenon is known as 'stimulus-selective persistent activity'.

[caption id="attachment_1405" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1405" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/微信图片_20240110173424-1-1024x768.png" alt="" width="600" height="450" /> Caption: Delay-Dependent Task. Figure courtesy of Professor Xiao-Jing Wang.[/caption]

In the study of decision-making, a simple yet ingenious experiment stands out: the two-alternative forced choice. Monkeys are trained to fixate on a point on a screen, and upon its disappearance, they make a decision: determining whether the movement of the point was to the left or to the right. Their decision is expressed through eye movements. The trick lies in the fact that, during any given trial, the proportion of the point's movement direction, known as coherence or motion strength, is controllable. If all points move in one direction, the decision is easy. But if only 50% move in the same direction and the rest move randomly, it becomes more challenging. And with a mere 5% coherence, or even 0%, making a subjective judgment becomes exceedingly difficult. Single-cell physiological studies have shown that neurons exhibit ramping activity within milliseconds. This instantaneous and intense activity represents a mechanism through which neurons integrate information, accumulating evidence about different choice options to form a subjective judgment.

Professor Xiao-Jing Wang, through these two experimental examples, strikes at the core of the most complex issues. As the renowned psychologist Donald Hebb once said, 'If one were to explain the delay between stimulus and response with a central neural mechanism, it seems remarkably congruent with the characteristics of thinking.' When we think, it's not driven by direct external stimuli but is an internal brain activity. Delayed activity is a specific instance of internal neuronal group activity.

However, the biological basis of decision-making or choice remains unclear, and AI systems lack this capability. As Noam Chomsky notes, 'Once you get to issues of will or decision or reason or choice of action, human science is at a loss.'

&nbsp;
<h2>Modeling Based on Biology</h2>
Despite the complexity of real biological processes, relatively simple behavioral paradigms can be used to attempt understanding mechanisms across different levels.

In a physics experiment involving a pendulum, if there is friction in the air, the pendulum's amplitude decreases over time, exhibiting an exponential decay. Similarly, neuronal firing also decays over time, with a time constant of approximately 10 milliseconds. To achieve sustained activity in working memory, this issue needs to be addressed. Professor Wang proposes a bold hypothesis: reverberation. That is, if a group of neurons stimulates each other, they can continue to be active even after the input disappears. The strong horizontal connections in layers two and three of the PFC in primates provide a structural basis for this hypothesis.

To test this hypothesis, Professor Wang simplified the complexity by creating a system with only two dynamic variables. This system demonstrates how to integrate random dots, perceptual decision-making, and working memory for judgments and choices.

This model has two selective firing neuronal groups - a and b. There is reverberation within each neuronal group, but the excitatory selectivity between the two groups is much weaker. They compete through inhibitory neurons, ultimately resulting in a winner. This outcome represents the system's choice. The system's choice is determined by the motion strength and relative input to groups a and b. When the input disappears, the choice signal remains self-sustained throughout the delay period. This model can explain the basic processes of working memory and decision-making.

[caption id="attachment_1404" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1404" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1-1-1024x771.png" alt="" width="600" height="452" /> Caption: (Left) Two-Alternative Forced Choice; (Right) Slow Reverberation Dynamics System. Figure courtesy of Professor Xiao-Jing Wang.[/caption]

Furthermore, this model operates across multiple levels. By considering reaction time as a function of motion strength, it is observed that the decision-making time increases as the motion strength decreases and the task becomes more difficult. This mirrors our everyday experience, where making a tough choice often requires considerable time to weigh different options. This phenomenon is also reflected in monkey experiments, elucidating why the dynamics of recurrent neural circuits can explain behavior.

Additionally, Professor Wang offers insights from a cellular and molecular perspective. For instance, slow time integration is primarily achieved through excitatory reverberation mediated by NMDA receptors. NMDA receptors are crucial for decision-making and working memory, as tested and confirmed in monkey experiments. If a drug were found that reduces or eliminates NMDA signaling, then neuronal activity would cease.

When considering self-sustained and internal states as functions of recurrent activation strength, and labeling these states with a parameter, it is found that in this model, above a certain parameter threshold, a series of stimulus-selective, persistent states emerge. These states include different memory items in working memory. The emergence of these states can be explained as bifurcations in the dynamic system, where graded changes in parameters lead to different functions and capabilities. This perspective is vital for recurrent neural circuits and is also applicable in multi-regional, large-scale brain systems.

[caption id="attachment_1403" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1403" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1024x794.png" alt="" width="600" height="465" /> Caption: Sufficiently Strong Recurrent Connections in Working Memory and Decision-Making. Figure courtesy of Professor Xiao-Jing Wang.[/caption]

Building upon this foundation, we can utilize machine learning to establish neural circuits akin to biological ones, capable of performing 20 different tasks, including working memory, decision-making, categorization, multisensory integration, delay sampling, delay categorization, and more. Once the network successfully executes these nuanced tasks, it enables us to 'open the black box' for analysis, pose questions, and delve into the dynamics of new circuits and neuronal groups. Neuronal activity can be gauged through task differentiation, and the interactions and organizational patterns among neurons can be deciphered using cluster analysis.

However, even if we design circuits that resemble the PFC, capable of flexibly guiding behavior based on rules, our endeavor should not end there. In reality, any given function involves multiple brain regions, including the PFC, the posterior parietal cortex, and potentially even supra-cortical structures.

&nbsp;
<h2>From Local Networks to Brain Systems</h2>
The interactions between different regions of the brain exhibit a high degree of recursion. As a theoretician, Professor Wang asserts that merely qualitatively sketching their feedback connections is insufficient; he advocates for the clarity and precision of numerical descriptions. Over the past decade, technological advancements have made it feasible to utilize collected data for constructing directed and weighted connection matrices between various regions.

In the cortex of macaque monkeys, when the directed connection weights between two regions are represented in histograms, it is observed that these histograms across multiple regions follow a log-normal distribution. The weight of any pair of regions and their wiring distance exhibit an exponential distribution. This implies that traditional graphical representations of cortical networks fall short, as they are based on topological logic and do not incorporate this specific embedding, failing to reflect the unique relationships between cortical areas. Professor Wang's team has developed a new class of mathematical models, specifically designed for this special embedding, enabling the study of real cortical networks.

[caption id="attachment_1404" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1404" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-1-1-1024x771.png" alt="" width="600" height="452" /> Caption: (Left) Graphical Representation; (Right) Histograms of Directed Connection Weights Between Different Regions and Histograms of Weight Against Wiring Distance. Figure courtesy of Professor Xiao-Jing Wang.[/caption]

In constructing large-scale cortical models, mathematical modeling of each region is required. Different regions may necessitate distinct mathematical models. Therefore, the process begins by formulating scientific questions and establishing corresponding models based on these inquiries.

In neuroscience, the cortex column is a recognized principle, referring to a columnar structure composed of vertically aligned neurons with similar functional and structural characteristics. This represents a local circuit unit that is repeated many times, consistent across rodents, monkeys, and humans. However, even within the same local circuit, quantitative differences exist that lead to qualitative changes, namely, differences in function and capabilities. Thus, it's essential to consider these quantitative variations in model construction.

Professor Wang's research has demonstrated the impact of quantitative differences in large-scale systems. By analyzing dendritic spine numbers as a function of layer position, a systematic increase in the number of spines per cell is observed. This microscopic gradient reveals the relationship between the excitation intensity of neurons in different areas. In a recent paper published in Nature Neuroscience, Professor Wang studied the expression gradients of neurotransmitter receptors in the macaque cortex, such as dopamine and serotonin receptors. He discovered a cortical hierarchy in which receptors in higher-level cortical areas have higher density, larger dendrites, and fewer myelin sheaths. This is another example of using mathematical models to quantify changes in biological characteristics.

[caption id="attachment_1407" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1407" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/640-4-1024x753.png" alt="" width="600" height="441" /> Caption: A Method for Measuring Neuronal Synaptic Inputs Along the Hierarchical Levels of Basal Dendritic Spines of Pyramidal Cells. Figure courtesy of Professor Xiao-Jing Wang.[/caption]

Beyond the quantitative hierarchy, a hierarchy in time constants also exists. The temporal scales of activity in different regions vary, with some regions having shorter time constants and others longer. For instance, the visual network operates very rapidly. When watching a movie, the sensory input is constantly changing, necessitating a very short time constant for swift reactions. Conversely, in decision-making, neuronal activity incrementally increases, implying the need for a much longer time constant. This has significant implications for cognitive processes such as working memory and decision-making.

Professor Wang also notes that analyzing isolated regions reveals that connections between regions are not only local but also long-distance, forming a bifurcation space. Constructing large-scale cortical models involves both adding linear gradients and analyzing time constants. The hierarchical structure and time constants aid in understanding the impact on large-scale dynamics and function.

Finally, Professor Wang emphasizes that neural circuits are not all alike. Cognitive circuits like those in the PFC, capable of handling both working memory and decision-making simultaneously, present the most thought-provoking issues from an AI perspective.

&nbsp;
<h2>In Conclusion</h2>
Neuroscience, being a complex and fascinating field, is enriched by numerous examples from computational neuroscience in this keynote address. It delves deep into the essence, uncovering patterns and trends hidden in the data and progressively revealing the workings of neural networks. Professor Wang, with his elegant physics and rigorous mathematics, narrates the process of conducting detailed biological research. The content, both profound and accessible, provokes deep reflection.[:]

Xiao-Jing Wang: Converting Neurons to Mathematical Models and Algorithms to Bridge the Gap Between the Human Brain and AI

[:en]Xiao-Jing Wang: Converting Neurons to Mathematical Models and Algorithms to Bridge the Gap Between the Human Brain and AI[:]

Ultrasound Telepathy: A New Breakthrough! Utilizing Intent to Control Direction, Achieving 'Precognition without Motion'

[:en]Ultrasound Telepathy: A New Breakthrough! Utilizing Intent to Control Direction, Achieving 'Precognition without Motion'[:zh]“超声读心”新突破！用意念控制方向，实现“未动先知”[:]

Is transcending boundaries the sole path for embodied intelligence?

[:en]Is transcending boundaries the sole path for embodied intelligence?[:zh]突破边界线，或是具身智能的唯一出路？[:]

When seeing two sets of abutting gratings slightly misaligned with each other, a line that doesn&#8217;t exist seems to appear in our minds. It seems to curve between two actual sets of lines. This is known as the abutting grating illusion.
&nbsp;
Two versions of neon color spreading are also quite interesting. One is the Ehrenstein configuration, where a set of radial lines extends outward. The lines are darker in the outward direction and lighter in the parts that converge toward the center. If you focus on the center of the lines, the lighter portion of the interior looks like it is spreading out into the surrounding darker areas, forming a translucent circle. The other is the Varin configuration, consisting of circles at each of the four corners, where one part of each circle is lighter in color and all the others are black. When we gaze at these circles, the lighter-colored portions seem to spread toward the center, eventually forming a translucent square.
&nbsp;
<h3>Algorithmic mechanisms of illusory contour perception</h3>
&nbsp;
Scientists have proposed a variety of theories to explain the algorithmic mechanisms triggering the perception of illusory contours in the illusion. Some schools of thought suggest that it is the lateral inhibition of color that enhances contrast and generates the perception of illusory lines. Another theory suggests that it may be a more advanced function of the brain, such as cerebral remediation, which is accomplished by knowledge and memory.
&nbsp;
Although these theories provide partial explanations of the illusion algorithms and physiological mechanisms, it remains unclear how are these visual illusions represented internally, which seems impossible to verify.
&nbsp;
<h3>Reconstructing illusory images</h3>
&nbsp;
A recent paper published in Science Advances experimented with the two types of visual illusions mentioned above and successfully reconstructed line and color images consistent with the illusory experience, demonstrating the model&#8217;s effectiveness in materializing subjective experience.
&nbsp;
At the test stage, seven subjects were shown at least three versions of illusory images as well as the control and positive control images. The control images of each type of illusion were altered. All test images were flashed at 0.625 Hz for 8 seconds in each trial and it was repeated across twenty trials. Throughout the experiment, the researchers used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technology to record the subjects&#8217; brain activity while viewing these images. Using a trained deep neural network (DNN) feature decoder, researchers obtained the decoded features from each single-trial brain activity of the test dataset.
&nbsp;
The results showed that images reconstructed from mental representations of illusory stimuli contained illusory experience features. In contrast, images reconstructed directly from the stimulus itself did not exhibit illusory experience features. This also suggests that the illusory experience features reconstructed from mental representations are not constructed from the nature and processing method of the DNN, but rather from the nature of the mental representations themselves.
&nbsp;
<h3>Quantifying reconstructed illusions</h3>
&nbsp;
To quantify the reconstructed illusory lines, researchers detected the most apparent line orientation in each single-trial reconstruction using the Radon transform. The Radon transform, a widely used method for resolving radiographic scanning data, can be used to mathematically reconstruct the shape of the original object by using the integral values (e.g., density, mass, etc.) obtained from projecting the object from all directions when only a side description is known.
&nbsp;
It was shown that for all the fMRI data on the visual cortex, the major orientation in the reconstructed images showed a bimodal distribution, with 61.1% of principal orientations closer to the illusory than the inducer orientation. This result supports the theory that a reduction in the number of gratings (lines) reduces the degree of illusion. At the same time, the results of analyzing different regions in the intercepted reconstructed image of illusions show that the region in which the illusion is located in the reconstructed image is between the two sets of gratings as perceived.
&nbsp;
The researchers also analyzed the nature of the illusion in the Ehrenstein configuration and the Varin configuration through a linear regression model, that is, the extent to which the color diffuses outward (forms a translucent plane) from the line given by the stimulus. The results of the linear regression showed that, based on all the fMRI data on the visual cortex, the subjective illusory coefficients for both stimuli that triggered the neon color spreading were greater than those for the control stimuli and smaller than those for the positive control stimuli. However, the subjective illusory coefficient for the Varin configuration, although greater than that for controls, was significantly smaller than that for the Ehrenstein configuration.
&nbsp;
<h3>Corresponding visual regions of illusions</h3>
&nbsp;
The researchers not only reconstructed the mental representations of the entire visual cortex for the illusion but also that of each specific visual region in the cortex for the illusion. After extracting the decoded fMRI data from different regions of the visual cortex and reconstructing the mental representations separately, the researchers found that the representation of lines was mainly concentrated in the early visual area. And when processing the neon color spreading, the visual cortex adopted a different strategy. This suggests that even for the same illusory nature, different inducer settings will cause the visual cortex to represent the information in different ways.
&nbsp;
This paper investigates the visual representation of illusions in different regions of the brain more comprehensively and intuitively, providing evidence for the validation of illusory mechanism models. This reconstruction of subjective visual experiences is a preliminary exploration of future brain-computer interfaces to enable shared subjective experiences between people.

This AI model has “drawn” the illusions that exist only in the brain

[:en]This AI model has “drawn” the illusions that exist only in the brain[:zh]只存在于脑中的幻象，这个AI模型“画”出来了[:]

It has taken decades for computer scientists to finally materialize automatic speech recognition AI models that are closer to the human level. Such purely engineered AI models have completely abandoned earlier modeling frameworks based on linguistic theory, and entirely adopted data-driven, end-to-end, large-scale pre-trained deep neural networks. So how much does such a model resemble the auditory pathways of the human brain?
&nbsp;
To address this issue, Professor Yuanning Li&#8217;s team at the School of Biomedical Engineering, ShanghaiTech University, in collaboration with Professor Edward Chang at the University of California, San Francisco, and Professor Jinsong Wu/Junfeng Lu&#8217;s team at Fudan University, integrated a variety of technological approaches such as self-supervised pre-trained in-depth speech modeling, high-density intracranial electroencephalograms, and single-neuron simulation modeling, and thoroughly investigated the computational and representational similarities between AI speech models and the auditory pathways of the human brain utilizing a cross-language (English and Chinese) control experiment paradigm.
&nbsp;
Researchers can extract features at different levels &#8211; from purely acoustic spectrogram features to phonetic vowels and consonants and articulations, to relative pitches containing contextual information, etc. &#8211; and then use sliding time windows to predict neural responses. If a particular type of feature accurately predicts neural activity in a particular region, it is usually assumed that the neural activity encoded in that region expresses that type of feature.
&nbsp;
Over the past decade or so, using intracranial electrophysiological recording experiments as well as neural coding models, researchers have identified several important features of neural coding, e.g., the activity of different neural populations in the secondary auditory cortex of the superior temporal gyrus encodes features ranging from envelopes of voice to specific vowel and consonant phonemes, and so on.
&nbsp;
In this study, in addition to the secondary auditory cortex, which is closely related to speech, using intracranial high-density EEG recording technology and high-precision single-neuron biophysical simulation modeling, the researchers obtained neural responses covering the entire auditory pathway from the auditory nerves to the brainstem to the auditory cortex.
&nbsp;
Given that AI models and brain auditory circuits are capable of receiving the same speech input and performing similar cognitive functions, are there computational and representational similarities between the two? This is the key question on which this study focuses.
&nbsp;
To address this problem, the researchers have constructed a new deep neural coding model. This is a purely data-driven model that extracts feature representations from deep neural networks pre-trained with speeches, applies these data-driven features to construct a new linear coding model, and performs correlation analysis with authentic brain auditory response signals to investigate the similarity between the intrinsic feature representations of deep neural networks and the activities of different neural populations within the brain auditory pathway.
&nbsp;
By comparing the performance of neural activity prediction at different nodes of the auditory pathway of the neural coding models built based on these models, it was found that there is indeed a great similarity between the hierarchical structure of the end-to-end speech pre-training network, and that of the auditory circuit.
&nbsp;
First, for the entire auditory pathway, the encoding prediction model based on deep neural network features is comprehensively better than the traditional linear feature model based on linguistic theory. This indicates that the entire auditory pathway has strong nonlinear features. Second, models with different levels of complexity correspond to different regions in the auditory pathway. In addition, it was found that for the same self-supervised speech model, its overall hierarchical structure corresponds to the AN-IC-STG hierarchical structure of the auditory pathway.
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Having established the representational similarities between the deep speech model and the auditory pathway, the researchers further explored the computational mechanisms driving these representational similarities, focusing on the best-performing HuBERT model.
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The results show that as the network deepens, the attentional weights aligned to long-range contextual structures become progressively larger. It is worth emphasizing that the HuBERT model used here is fully self-supervised, and the training process does not include any explicit information about the context structure as well as the speech content information. This result suggests that a self-supervised trained speech model can learn key context structure information related to language and semantics in natural speech.
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In the secondary auditory cortex of the superior temporal gyrus, which is closely related to speech processing, the higher the alignment of the self-attentional weights with the contextual structures in speech, the better the neural network&#8217;s prediction of brain activity, while conversely, in the primary auditory cortex as well as in these regions of the auditory nerve and brainstem, the greater the expression of localized transient information in the temporal domain, and the greater the resemblance between neural networks and brain signals.
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Last but not least, the study further analyzed whether the self-supervised model was able to learn more advanced contextual information. The results show that the self-supervised model is able to learn higher-level contextual information related to linguistic specificity and that this specificity information is significantly correlated with computation and representation in the phonetic cortex of the brain.
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This study provides a new biological perspective on unlocking the “black box” of deep neural networks, especially the self-attention model called Transformer.
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<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-023-01468-4">Read the paper on Nature Neuroscience</a>

How similar are AI speech models to the auditory pathways of humans?

[:en]How similar are AI speech models to the auditory pathways of humans?[:zh]AI语音模型与人的听觉有多相似？上科大/UCSF/复旦联合团队解析深度语音模型与人脑听觉通路的表征与计算相似性[:]

Interview with Professor Si Wu: Unlocking the "Door of Wisdom" in Artificial Intelligence

[:en]Interview with Professor Si Wu: Unlocking the "Door of Wisdom" in Artificial Intelligence[:zh]吴思：打开人工智能的“智慧之门”[:]

Because the Mountain is There - A Decade of Human Brain Projects

[:en]Because the Mountain is There - A Decade of Human Brain Projects[:zh]因为山就在那里——人类脑计划的十年[:]

Embodied Intelligence: The Pathway to the Future of Human Wisdom

[:en]Embodied Intelligence: The Pathway to the Future of Human Wisdom[:zh]具身智能：通向人类智慧的未来之路[:]

From 'Emergent Intelligence' to 'Superhuman': Envisioning the Pinnacle of AGI

[:en]From 'Emergent Intelligence' to 'Superhuman': Envisioning the Pinnacle of AGI[:zh]从“智能涌现”到“超人类”，通往AGI巅峰的终极设想[:]

In 2013, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) launched the Brain Research Through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies Initiative (BRAIN Initiative). In 2017, with the rapid development of single-cell sequencing and imaging technologies, the BICCN (BRAIN Initiative Cell Census Network) program was launched. It is a consortium of research teams located across the United States and Europe, aiming to use cutting-edge technologies to identify and classify cell types in the mouse, non-human primate, and human brains, as well as to develop new genetic tools for specific cell types.
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On October 13, 2023, scientists from the BICCN program published 21 papers in Science and its affiliated journals Science Advances and Science Translational Medicine, which released the largest and most comprehensive brain cell mapping of human and non-human primates, revealing more than 3,000 brain cell types, with many of these discoveries being the “first of their kind”.
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<h3>Single-cell mapping of adult human and non-human primates</h3>
 
The first study was led by neuroscientists Sten Linnarsson from the Karolinska Institute of Sweden and Kimberly Siletti from the University Medical Center Utrecht. They collected more than three million single cells from 106 sites in the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain of three deceased individuals for RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq), which provided insights into the diversity and subtypes of brain cells and laid a solid foundation for mapping the whole brain.
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By analyzing the sequencing data, they identified 461 broad categories of brain cells, including 3,313 subtypes, of which about 80% were neurons and the rest were different kinds of glial cells. Notably, the researchers found that the brainstem is the brain region with the greatest diversity of neurons and that some of these cells control innate behaviors such as pain reflexes, fear, aggression, and sexual behaviors, etc.
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Nikolas Jorstad from the Allen Institute for Brain Science in Seattle worked with his fellow co-workers to analyze eight regions of the cerebral cortex of adult humans and showed that most of the regions contain the same major cell types, with differences mainly in the proportions of each type and in the cortex where non-neuronal cells are located.
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Overall, these data support an evolutionary strategy of regional functional diversification that does not rely heavily on the generation of new cell types but rather utilizes subtle changes within cell types and in their relative distributions to construct distinct circuits.
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In addition to regional variability, there are individual differences in gene expression in brain cells. One of the studies reached this conclusion after comparing brain tissue from a large number of individuals using single-cell techniques for the first time. The results show that despite highly consistent cellular composition between individuals, there is a large amount of variation that can reflect individual characteristics, disease conditions, and genetic regulatory variants.
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The team of molecular biologist Joseph Ecker from the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in the U.S. chose to analyze the brain from an epigenetic perspective. In 2020, a team of researchers led by Professor Ecker analyzed more than 160 types of cells in the brains of mice, based on methylation markers on their DNAs, a methodology that can parse out the “on/off” states of genes. Ultimately, the team constructed a single-cell DNA methylation and three-dimensional genomic structural map of the human brain, elucidating the cellular specificity of various parts of the brain as well as their diverse epigenetic architectures.
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<h3>A comparative study of adult human and non-human primate single-cell mappings</h3>
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To clarify which features of brain cells are unique to humans versus non-human primates, Jorstad and other scientists performed single-cell transcriptional analysis of the middle temporal gyrus (a region critical for language comprehension) in adult humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, macaques, and common marmosets. They found that although primates largely share the same conserved cell types, they exhibit dramatic differences in cell proportions. Notably, although glial cells are generally less diverse than neurons within species, microglia, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes showed greater transcriptional differences between species compared to neurons. These results suggest that specific properties of the adult human cortex may derive from relatively few cellular and molecular changes.
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Brian Lee et al. at the Allen Institute for Brain Science demonstrated that multimodal Patch-seq data are critical for refining the taxonomy of transcriptomic cell types using rapid viral gene labeling and patch clamp electrophysiology coupled with RNA sequencing (Patch-seq) to analyze neurons in neurosurgically resected living tissues.
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Thomas Chartrand et al, also from the Allen Institute for Brain Science, used single-cell transcriptomics to define neuronal cell types in cerebral cortex L1 of humans and mice and quantitatively identified homologous subspecies across species. The cross-species differences they observed suggest that humans and mice differ in their regulation of higher-order inputs to neocortical circuits.
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<h3>Modeling analysis of specific cell types of humans</h3>
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Tens of thousands of sequence variants in the human genome have been associated with the causes of neuropsychiatric disorders. To clarify their correlations, Ren Bing&#8217;s research team at the University of California, San Diego, conducted a comprehensive analysis of chromatin accessibility in the human brain at the single-cell level. Their results show that nearly one-third of transcriptional regulatory elements exhibit conservation and chromatin accessibility in mouse brain cells, emphasizing their functional importance.
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Single-cell developmental map of human and nonhuman primates
To track the developmental trajectories of the cerebral cortex, the research team of Arnold R. Kriegstein at the University of California, San Francisco, collected a large amount of small nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) data from human cortical samples at different stages of development and performed single-cell trajectory analysis on single-cell data generated from human cortical samples at prenatal and postnatal developmental stages.
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This study elucidates the molecular changes behind human cortical lineage development. By integrating single-cell transcriptomic expression and chromatin accessibility mapping, they mapped a comprehensive cortical lineage covering prenatal and postnatal development, which identified key transcriptional networks and highlighted gender-specific developmental changes.
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They found that although neurons are the most diverse, both pre-astrocytes and oligodendrocyte precursor cells are also distinct across regions, with differences in their gene expression suggesting region-specific and cell-type-specific supporting functions. These findings emphasize the importance of early pattern events and provide a rich data resource for identifying therapeutic targets for human diseases affecting specific brain cell populations.
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Tomasz Nowakowski&#8217;s research team from the University of California, San Francisco, focused on analyzing features such as cell types and spatial organizations of the human thalamus as it develops. According to the analytical results, neurogenesis occurs in the thalamus during early gestation, giving rise to both glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons; by mid-gestation, glutamatergic neurons differentiate into two subtypes, while the number of GABAergic neurons in the thalamus increases dramatically and begins to be widely distributed. The results suggest that this population of GABAergic neurons may have contributed to human evolution.
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The breadth and depth of these BICCN studies demonstrate the potential of such large collaborative initiatives to generate fundamental knowledge of the human brain. This tremendous progress will provide invaluable resources for understanding how the human brain is formed and for research on human neurological disorders, as well as laying the groundwork for understanding the composition and function of the human brain and opening up a new era of inquiry into the etiology of human neurological disorders.
<a href="https://www.science.org/collections/brain-cell-census">Read related papers on Science</a>
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Milestones in Neuroscience! Comprehensive single-cell mapping of the human brain

[:en]Milestones in Neuroscience! Comprehensive single-cell mapping of the human brain[:zh]神经科学领域里程碑！全面构建人类大脑单细胞图谱[:]

On February 25 (Beijing time), Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI) and the University of California, Davis (UC Davis) co-hosted the Contemplative Science Summit. The conference consisted of three symposiums that jointly explored how does contemplative science get out of the lab and become an integral part of the world in order to better study the impact of contemplative practices that will be incorporated into society in a more meaningful and impactful way.
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COVID-19 has profoundly changed the living style of everyone and has contributed to the development of the contemplative science, propelling relevant research to get out of the lab and into the world. Contemplation has gradually become better known as an effective self-help method, but the neural mechanisms behind it are still unclear. Symposium 1 focused on embedded measurement systems and remote technologies, how can effective research be conducted in exploring the true impact of contemplation on people&#8217;s lives? How can remote data collection technologies help?
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At the early days of the pandemic, everyone was living in uncertainties, with a lost sense of security while suffering from huge pressure and anxiety. Dr. Quinn Conklin, Dr. Brandon King and Dr. Alea Skwara from UC Davis have shared their contemplative studies during the pandemic from different perspectives.
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<h3>01 Contemplative research in context: Insights from COVID-era research and intensive retreat studies</h3>
Quinn Conklin, Ph.D., Brandon King, Ph.D., &amp; Alea Skwara, Ph.D., University of California, Davis
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Contemplative solutions to cope with COVID-19
Contemplative practices can help people relieve stress and anxiety, but there are individual differences in its effectiveness. To investigate whether contemplation helps people cope with uncertainty and the stress it causes during the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers recruited hundreds of volunteers from different countries and collected information from multiple perspectives to reflect the volunteers&#8217; resilience, mental toughness, and physical condition through questionnaires and a remote blood-collection toolkit. In order to make the results of the study available to a wider audience, they visualized the data and uploaded it to a website they created. The website allows users to visualize the data from different dimensions to see how the data relates to each other.
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1136" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/60-300x204.png" alt="" width="600" height="407" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/60-300x204.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/60-768x521.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/60.png 1006w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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Taking stress perception as an example, users are able to observe individual differences in stress perception by adding variables such as age, region, and contemplation, respectively. In addition to this, the website can also monitor the relations amongst the variables through the correlation matrix. The site is constantly being iterated and optimized, while continuously accumulating data and breaking down the data into more detailed dimension. Users will have more freedom to explore the content of their own interests.
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How does contemplation affect people’s perception of pain
When we contemplate, we may enter a state of oblivion. Our minds are unrestrained, and our imaginations run wild. One moment we are thinking about the role of nature, and the next we may start pondering over the social environment and changes in our daily lives. What kind of changes will contemplation bring us? Researchers have found that contemplation increases the motivation to feel pain through a three-month intensive retreat contemplation study.
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They divided 60 subjects into a retreat group who spent three months at a retreat center on contemplation and a control group who went about their normal lives at home. The researchers created thematic affective picture sets that contained emotional stimuli on a variety of topics such as threat, suffering, and harm, including negative topics such as interpersonal conflict, natural disasters, unemployment, homelessness, and conflict and harm between different groups, as well as positive topics such as positive human-human interactions and positive human-animal interactions. When given emotional stimuli, the retreat group&#8217;s perception of pain was more prominent, probably because of the different level of importance for the retreat group and the control group when it comes to pain.
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 <img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1137" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/61-1-300x168.png" alt="" width="600" height="336" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/61-1-300x168.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/61-1-1024x573.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/61-1-768x430.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/61-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
 
They presented this picture set to 250 college students and asked them to rate the pictures based on two dimensions: positive vs. negative and approach vs. escape. They found that for painful stimuli, while most gave negative ratings, unlike threats, not everyone wanted to flee, possibly due to individual differences in terms of empathy. Those with higher empathy perceived the painful pictures as more negative but had to approach the pain in order to resolve it and to understand its origin. However, are there other explanations for this propensity? Can this propensity be acquired through training? What is the nature of this shift? What does it mean to feel disgusted and desired to approach at the same time? How is it developed? What is the physiological nature of this phenomenon?
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Exploring remote and online contemplative interventions
To address these issues, they planned to conduct an eight-week contemplation training in the laboratory to explore the relation between visual attention and physiological responses and their short-term changes evoked by painful stimuli. However, as the epidemic interrupted the experimental process, they explored ways to study online contemplative interventions remotely.
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To ensure the quality of the data collected, they worked with participants to construct home labs. High-quality cameras and online eye movement analyzers helped researchers collect eye movement data and model pupil movement to reflect their visual attention. Specialized smartwatches were able to measure the subjects&#8217; heart rate and skin conductance to reflect their physiological conditions. The study collected subjective reports from 275 instructors who taught online as well as in face-to-face classes. The data showed that the intervention was slightly less effective for online practices; however, reports from students who received contemplation training showed that staying at home instead strengthened their contemplative practices attributable to a sense of online community.
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This online means of collecting data on contemplative interventions has reduced accuracy and variability, but it is ecologically valid. It is more inclusive of diverse participants, which makes it plausible to explore a wider range of issues. They are now initiating a pilot study in a larger group.
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1138" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/63-1-300x173.png" alt="" width="600" height="347" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/63-1-300x173.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/63-1-1024x592.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/63-1-768x444.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/63-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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<h3>02 Capturing the natural unfolding of memory for events encountered under threat and curiosity</h3>
Vishnu Murty, Ph.D., Temple University
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Memory is not an authentic record of past experiences but affected by internal states. Dr. Vishnu Murty of Temple University discusses how do the two states of threat and curiosity affect memory.
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Selectivity of memory
In our memories, some information is lost while some is always there. Everything we see in the world is filtered through goals and desires, and we receive exactly the same stimuli, but our preferences for those stimuli will change the landscape of our memories. Memory is driven by a person&#8217;s internal state and the selectivity of memory is usually focused on emotionally relevant aspects.
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Exploration state and threat state
When in an exploratory state, the nucleus accumbens (NAC) is activated and dopamine secretion increases. When in a state of threat, there is increased secretion of the stress hormone (cortisol), activation of the amygdala, and increased secretion of norepinephrine. When in an exploratory state, we represent more of our relationships with the surrounding world, and when in a state of threat, we get more project-centered representations. So how do goal states affect memory in the brain? Why does threat lead to memory fragmentation?
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1139" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/64-1-300x183.png" alt="" width="600" height="367" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/64-1-300x183.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/64-1-768x469.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/64-1.png 962w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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Threat and exploration models
Through experiments in navigating virtual reality environments, researchers have found that people would memorize signposts during exploration in order to build a map that helps identify hidden locations. However, threatening information near a signpost would destroy people&#8217;s memory of that signpost. In this state, threatening information actually destroys memories increased by exploratory curiosity.
If we really want to understand what&#8217;s going on, we need to introduce a motivational filter. The hippocampus is responsible for exploration and likes to make relational memories, binding content to context to make a comprehensive map of the world around it. The peripheral cortex of hippocampus, on the other hand, is responsible for danger recognition and is good at remembering specific things but can&#8217;t incorporate them into a relational map. Thus, even though everyone receives exactly the same information, their mental state at the moment changes how that information is stored.
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Haunted house experiment
Researchers constructed the haunted house laboratory inspired by actual startles. Subjects would wear a device that could measure their heart rate before entering the haunted house to undergo a pre-arranged startle test and later report on the startles they received. The researchers found that the more a person&#8217;s heart rate rose, the more biased their perception of specific parts of the haunted house became, which also interfered with the way people narrated threatening events. As we move through space, the sense of threat can dynamically shape what we extract from the world.
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They also found that threat exerts no influence over the ability to remember things but interferes with curiosity to prevent us from noticing the things worth our attention.
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 <img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1140" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/65-1-300x196.png" alt="" width="600" height="392" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/65-1-300x196.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/65-1-768x501.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/65-1.png 973w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
 
Inspired by mindfulness and contemplation, their team explored whether curiosity could be used to mitigate the negative effects of threat. At the beginning of the study, they asked subjects to say nine statements that they feared their peers would say, and in this way, they obtained self-related threats. The classic method of emotional regulation is to reduce or increase emotions through reassessment. Using this technique (curiosity about why they said what they said), negative emotions about the words could be similarly reduced.
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In addition, using curiosity is much easier than cognitive reassessment. There appears to be a push-pull relationship between curiosity and threat and their effects on memory. While threats may inhibit our intrinsic curiosity for a moment, we can use curiosity techniques to inhibit the effects of threats.
 
<h3>03 App-based contemplative trainings: Promises and pitfalls of scalability.</h3>
Paul Condon, Ph.D., Southern Oregon University
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Mindfulness contemplation and compassion contemplation can diminish the bystander effect and increase helpful behaviors. App-based contemplation training can also achieve this effect. This training method is also effective in reducing stress and improving sleep. But it&#8217;s not without its drawbacks. Dr. Paul Condon of Southern Oregon University found that people were more likely to give up when participating in app-based contemplative trainings than in face-to-face contemplative trainings, and that mindfulness practices reduced some people&#8217;s willingness to help, which means that contemplation made them more selfish. Why’s the possible explanation to this?
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1141" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/66-300x170.png" alt="" width="600" height="340" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/66-300x170.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/66-1024x580.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/66-768x435.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/66.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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Face-to-face training can help people construct social connections with mentors, peers, and even caregivers, embedding people in social relationships and deepening interpersonal bonds. When people are not in such social relationships, they do not feel socially supported during contemplation and are more likely to experience burnout, aversion to pain, and loneliness in their suffering.
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The point of a contemplative practice is to help people experience the cycle and strengthen it. People can build an inner sense of security and then extend that feeling to others by viewing and supporting them in the same way, and others can in return enhance this sense of security. Dr. Condon and his collaborators proposed this concept and used it as a relational starting point for contemplation.
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Contemplation can bring calm and serenity to the mind, but researchers have yet to fully figure out why it works. This first symposium of the Summit takes us through the scientific explanations behind this ancient and mysterious way of life, and the app-based practice of contemplation is a key step in taking it out of the lab and into the world. We hope that contemplation will have a positive impact on more people’s lives.

A joint UC Davis-TCCI Contemplative Science Summit-Symposium 1: How can contemplative research break spatial limitations?

[:en]A joint UC Davis-TCCI Contemplative Science Summit-Symposium 1: How can contemplative research break spatial limitations?[:zh]冥想研究如何突破空间的限制？冥想科学峰会·专题一[:]

What&#8217;s the first thing that comes to mind when you hear about contemplation? Religion, yoga, or mindfulness? As a thinking activity that can reshape the brain and change the ideology, contemplation is at the intersection of cognitive science, human psychology, and cultural psychiatry. Nowadays, contemplation has been gradually separated from religion and increasingly recognized as a healthy training for human both physically and mentally.
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High on the evolutionary tree, human beings have obvious socialization characteristics, and human experience is affected by multiple interactions. On February 25 (Beijing time), the Contemplative Science Summit and Community Gathering, jointly organized by the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI) and the University of California, Davis (UC Davis), was held. During Symposium 2, three scholars from the field of contemplative science explored contemplative practices from the dimensions of eliminating bias in scientific research, neural encoding mechanisms behind language models, and socio-cultural contexts of contemplation.
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<h3>01 Restoring the élan vital of research: Principles and practices of inclusive, anti-racist science</h3>
Kamilah Majied, Ph.D., California State University, Monterey Bay
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1128" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/50-1-300x170.png" alt="" width="600" height="339" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/50-1-300x170.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/50-1-1024x579.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/50-1-768x434.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/50-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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Dr. Kamilah Majied from California State University, Monterey Bay, made a clear statement against racism and immigrant discrimination at the conference. In this symposium, she talked about how to utilize contemplative practices to assess and eliminate bias in scientific research in different social contexts.
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At the beginning, Dr. Majied used a light-hearted contemplative exercise to bring herself closer to the audience and create a relaxed and joyful atmosphere for the symposium. Dr. Majied argued that it is beneficial to pause when we are in an emotionally and cognitively difficult moment. Such pauses will create surprises and serves as a buffer for unconscious biases.
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1129" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/51-1-300x169.png" alt="" width="600" height="337" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/51-1-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/51-1-1024x576.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/51-1-768x432.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/51-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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Dr. Majied described her own passion for resisting white supremacy culture and her expectations that people will explore science and the world fully and freely. She prescribed her own antidotes in terms of a culture of appreciation, a framework for learning, and positive feedback as well as criticism. She argues that haste breeds discrimination, while momentary cease leaves space for sanity. White supremacy in science and education should be ignored rather than being a hindrance to the road forward. Language, as a vehicle of culture, allows for authentic and holistic communication and should be an effective practice against racism.
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1130" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/52-1-300x170.png" alt="" width="600" height="339" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/52-1-300x170.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/52-1-1024x579.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/52-1-768x434.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/52-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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&#8220;Let thoughts flow freely and words turn into poetry to nourish our hearts and minds. It delights the wise to create a better world with all.&#8221; Towards the end of his talk, Dr. Majied engaged the audience in a fill-in-the-blank interaction, where everyone was free to articulate their thoughts. While prejudice and discrimination is a heavy topic, Dr. Majied took a transcendental approach to address existing problems and offered viable solutions in conjunction with the contemplative science.
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<h3>02 Can deep language models serve as a cognitive model for natural language processing in the human brain?</h3>
Uri Hasson, Ph.D., Princeton University
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Dr. Uri Hasson from Princeton University talked about the neural processes of natural language processing and shared the computational rules shared by neural encoding and deep language models.
&nbsp;
Dr. Hasson pointed out that research subjects in the lab usually cannot be used as references for real-life scenarios, and the deep language model he initially constructed has been proven to fail in multi-scenario validation. He has conducted a series of explorations ever since to construct a model in recent years that is close to language processing in the natural state of the human brain.
&nbsp;
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1131" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/53-300x169.png" alt="" width="600" height="339" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/53-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/53-1024x578.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/53-768x434.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/53.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
&nbsp;
However, current deep language models still have shortcomings, such as the lack of advanced planning and the limitation that the language learning process is carried out by observing word-to-word connections. These flaws indicate that such models are still greatly different from the human brain.
&nbsp;
This topic is naturally associated with ChatGPT, the immensely popular large language model launched recently, which leads to an interesting question: how many computational laws are shared between ChatGPT and the human brain in terms of language processing?
&nbsp;
<h3>03 Contemplative practice in context: A cultural-ecosocial approach</h3>
Laurence Kirmayer, M.D., McGill University
&nbsp;
Dr. Laurence Kirmayer from McGill University, USA, discussed the cultural shaping mechanisms involved in contemplative practices and reflected on contemplative science under social, cultural, and political contexts.
&nbsp;
Dr. Kirmayer argued that the subject of contemplative science consists of four parts: trainings, processes, goals, and results, of which contemplative trainings can take many forms depending on cultural diversities.
&nbsp;
The social sciences provide contemplative trainings based on specific social contexts, and contemplation in turn can help individuals recognize the dynamics of social systems. The continuation of human society is not only dependent on our brains, but also our interactions with the environment.
&nbsp;
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1132" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/54-300x164.png" alt="" width="600" height="327" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/54-300x164.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/54-1024x558.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/54-768x419.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/54.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
&nbsp;
Contemplative thinking changes dynamically from context to context. And in the encoding process of daily attention, the interactions of self-consciousness, consciousness of others, illusions, and subconsciousness are maneuvering our mental worlds. Neuroscientists are constantly interpreting the biological process behind it, but it is indisputable that its carrier is the very continuation of the physical body and culture.
&nbsp;
Contemplation does not exist in isolation but intertwine with specific historical and social contexts to reveal its uniqueness. Dr. Kirmayer demonstrated the connotations of contemplation in specific contexts from multiple dimensions. Finally, he advocated that the study of the contemplative science should be an integral part of a cultural system, with an eye on changes caused by political shifts.
&nbsp;
Though the three speakers presented around the same topic of contemplation, each took on different perspectives including bias in science and culture and specific cultural contexts, which unveiled the true beauty of contemplation. The neural mechanism of language encoding is a unique perspective to rationally analyze the biological basis of contemplation. We aspire to demystify contemplation and usher it into the scientific realm in the form of mindfulness for the benefit of all mankind.

[:en]What's the first thing that comes to mind when you hear about contemplation? Religion, yoga, or mindfulness? As a thinking activity that can reshape the brain and change the ideology, contemplation is at the intersection of cognitive science, human psychology, and cultural psychiatry. Nowadays, contemplation has been gradually separated from religion and increasingly recognized as a healthy training for human both physically and mentally.

&nbsp;

High on the evolutionary tree, human beings have obvious socialization characteristics, and human experience is affected by multiple interactions. On February 25 (Beijing time), the Contemplative Science Summit and Community Gathering, jointly organized by the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI) and the University of California, Davis (UC Davis), was held. During Symposium 2, three scholars from the field of contemplative science explored contemplative practices from the dimensions of eliminating bias in scientific research, neural encoding mechanisms behind language models, and socio-cultural contexts of contemplation.

&nbsp;
<h3>01 Restoring the élan vital of research: Principles and practices of inclusive, anti-racist science</h3>
Kamilah Majied, Ph.D., California State University, Monterey Bay

&nbsp;

<img class="aligncenter wp-image-1128" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/50-1-300x170.png" alt="" width="600" height="339" />

&nbsp;

Dr. Kamilah Majied from California State University, Monterey Bay, made a clear statement against racism and immigrant discrimination at the conference. In this symposium, she talked about how to utilize contemplative practices to assess and eliminate bias in scientific research in different social contexts.

&nbsp;

At the beginning, Dr. Majied used a light-hearted contemplative exercise to bring herself closer to the audience and create a relaxed and joyful atmosphere for the symposium. Dr. Majied argued that it is beneficial to pause when we are in an emotionally and cognitively difficult moment. Such pauses will create surprises and serves as a buffer for unconscious biases.

&nbsp;

<img class="aligncenter wp-image-1129" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/51-1-300x169.png" alt="" width="600" height="337" />

&nbsp;

Dr. Majied described her own passion for resisting white supremacy culture and her expectations that people will explore science and the world fully and freely. She prescribed her own antidotes in terms of a culture of appreciation, a framework for learning, and positive feedback as well as criticism. She argues that haste breeds discrimination, while momentary cease leaves space for sanity. White supremacy in science and education should be ignored rather than being a hindrance to the road forward. Language, as a vehicle of culture, allows for authentic and holistic communication and should be an effective practice against racism.

&nbsp;

<img class="aligncenter wp-image-1130" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/52-1-300x170.png" alt="" width="600" height="339" />

&nbsp;

"Let thoughts flow freely and words turn into poetry to nourish our hearts and minds. It delights the wise to create a better world with all." Towards the end of his talk, Dr. Majied engaged the audience in a fill-in-the-blank interaction, where everyone was free to articulate their thoughts. While prejudice and discrimination is a heavy topic, Dr. Majied took a transcendental approach to address existing problems and offered viable solutions in conjunction with the contemplative science.

&nbsp;
<h3>02 Can deep language models serve as a cognitive model for natural language processing in the human brain?</h3>
Uri Hasson, Ph.D., Princeton University

&nbsp;

Dr. Uri Hasson from Princeton University talked about the neural processes of natural language processing and shared the computational rules shared by neural encoding and deep language models.

&nbsp;

Dr. Hasson pointed out that research subjects in the lab usually cannot be used as references for real-life scenarios, and the deep language model he initially constructed has been proven to fail in multi-scenario validation. He has conducted a series of explorations ever since to construct a model in recent years that is close to language processing in the natural state of the human brain.

&nbsp;

<img class="aligncenter wp-image-1131" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/53-300x169.png" alt="" width="600" height="339" />

&nbsp;

However, current deep language models still have shortcomings, such as the lack of advanced planning and the limitation that the language learning process is carried out by observing word-to-word connections. These flaws indicate that such models are still greatly different from the human brain.

&nbsp;

This topic is naturally associated with ChatGPT, the immensely popular large language model launched recently, which leads to an interesting question: how many computational laws are shared between ChatGPT and the human brain in terms of language processing?

&nbsp;
<h3>03 Contemplative practice in context: A cultural-ecosocial approach</h3>
Laurence Kirmayer, M.D., McGill University

&nbsp;

Dr. Laurence Kirmayer from McGill University, USA, discussed the cultural shaping mechanisms involved in contemplative practices and reflected on contemplative science under social, cultural, and political contexts.

&nbsp;

Dr. Kirmayer argued that the subject of contemplative science consists of four parts: trainings, processes, goals, and results, of which contemplative trainings can take many forms depending on cultural diversities.

&nbsp;

The social sciences provide contemplative trainings based on specific social contexts, and contemplation in turn can help individuals recognize the dynamics of social systems. The continuation of human society is not only dependent on our brains, but also our interactions with the environment.

&nbsp;

<img class="aligncenter wp-image-1132" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/54-300x164.png" alt="" width="600" height="327" />

&nbsp;

Contemplative thinking changes dynamically from context to context. And in the encoding process of daily attention, the interactions of self-consciousness, consciousness of others, illusions, and subconsciousness are maneuvering our mental worlds. Neuroscientists are constantly interpreting the biological process behind it, but it is indisputable that its carrier is the very continuation of the physical body and culture.

&nbsp;

Contemplation does not exist in isolation but intertwine with specific historical and social contexts to reveal its uniqueness. Dr. Kirmayer demonstrated the connotations of contemplation in specific contexts from multiple dimensions. Finally, he advocated that the study of the contemplative science should be an integral part of a cultural system, with an eye on changes caused by political shifts.

&nbsp;

Though the three speakers presented around the same topic of contemplation, each took on different perspectives including bias in science and culture and specific cultural contexts, which unveiled the true beauty of contemplation. The neural mechanism of language encoding is a unique perspective to rationally analyze the biological basis of contemplation. We aspire to demystify contemplation and usher it into the scientific realm in the form of mindfulness for the benefit of all mankind.[:zh]听到冥想，你首先想到的是什么呢？宗教、瑜伽、物我两忘？冥想是一种可以重塑大脑、改变意识形态的思维活动，交汇于认知科学、人类心理学与文化精神病学。当下，冥想逐渐从宗教中分离出来，被越来越多人所认可，成为有益于人类身心健康的训练。

&nbsp;

人类作为进化树上的高级存在，具有明显的社会化特征，人类体验受到多种交互作用的影响。北京时间2月25日，天桥脑科学研究院（TCCI）与美国加州大学戴维斯分校（UC Davis）联合举办的冥想科学会议顺利召开。在“专题研讨会二”中，来自冥想科学领域的3位学者从消除科学研究中的偏见、语言模型的神经编码机制以及冥想的社会文化背景等多个维度对冥想实践进行探讨。

&nbsp;
<h3>01</h3>
<h3>重塑研究的生命力：反种族歧视的包容性科学的原则与实践</h3>
&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1128" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1128" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/50-1-300x170.png" alt="" width="600" height="339" /> ▷图注：演讲主题[/caption]

&nbsp;

来自美国加州州立大学蒙特雷湾分校的Kamilah Majied博士在会上明确表示，反对种族主义与移民歧视。在此次研讨会上，她讲述了如何利用冥想实践，评估和消除不同社会背景下科学研究中存在的偏见。

&nbsp;

一开始，Majied博士用一段轻松愉快的冥想训练搭建了与在场听众互动的桥梁，营造了轻松快乐的会议氛围。Majied博士认为，当我们的情感和认知处于艰难时刻时，不妨停下来。这种停歇会创造惊喜，为无意识偏见提供缓冲空间。

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1129" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1129" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/51-1-300x169.png" alt="" width="600" height="337" /> ▷图注：讲者对改善偏见提供的观点[/caption]

&nbsp;

Majied博士介绍了自己抵抗白人优先文化的热忱，期望人们可以全面、自由地探索科学与世界。她从感恩文化、学习框架、批评与积极反馈等方面提出了解决之道。她认为，急切给歧视提供土壤，片刻的停歇创造理智，科学与教育中的白人优先应该被忽略而不应成为前行的负担。语言作为文化的载体，可以真实、全面地进行沟通，应该成为反对种族主义的有效实践。

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1130" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1130" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/52-1-300x170.png" alt="" width="600" height="339" /> ▷图注：作者用以阐明观点的诗句[/caption]

&nbsp;

“让思想在心头自由地流淌，让文字化作诗歌滋润我们的心扉，能让智者愉悦的是与众人一起创造更美好的世界。”在演讲的尾声，Majied博士与在场听众进行了填词互动，大家可以自由阐述自己的想法。虽然偏见与歧视是一个沉重的话题，但Majied博士以超然物外的态度陈述了存在的问题并结合冥想科学提供了可行的解决方案。

&nbsp;
<h3>02</h3>
<h3>深度语言模型能否作为人脑自然语言处理的认知模型？</h3>
&nbsp;

来自美国普林斯顿大学的Uri Hasson博士讲述了自然语言处理的神经过程，并分享了神经编码与深度语言模型共享的计算规则。

&nbsp;

Hasson博士指出，实验室里的研究对象往往不能作为现实生活场景的参考，他最初构建的深度语言模型在多场景验证中失效了，此后经历了一系列探索，近年来构建的模型接近人脑自然状态下的语言加工过程。

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1131" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1131" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/53-300x169.png" alt="" width="600" height="339" /> ▷图注：深度语言模型与人脑的区别[/caption]

&nbsp;

但当前的深度语言模型仍存在不足，如缺乏提前规划；语言学习过程是通过观察单词与单词之间的联系进行的，具有局限性；与人脑仍有较多差别。

&nbsp;

这不禁令人联想到最近广受关注的ChatGPT，并引申出一个有趣的问题：ChatGPT与人脑在语言加工过程中又有多少共享的计算法则呢？

&nbsp;
<h3>03</h3>
<h3>具体情景下的冥想实践：基于文化与生态社会的实践方式</h3>
&nbsp;

来自美国麦吉尔大学的Laurence Kirmayer博士讲述了冥想实践涉及的文化塑造机制，从社会、文化、政治背景的层面对冥想科学进行思考。

&nbsp;

Kirmayer博士认为冥想科学的主题由训练、过程、目标、结果四部分组成，其中冥想训练会因文化的多元而呈现多种形式。

&nbsp;

社会科学提供基于特定社会环境的冥想训练，冥想反过来可以帮助个体认识到社会系统的动态变化。人类社会的延续不仅依赖于我们的大脑，同时也包含了与环境的交融。

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1132" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1132" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/54-300x164.png" alt="" width="600" height="327" /> ▷图注：意识、经验、社会因素与神经生物学过程的相互作用[/caption]

&nbsp;

不同情境下，冥想的思维水平是动态变化的。而在日常注意力的编码过程中，自我意识、他人意识、幻想、潜意识四者相互作用，舞动着人们的精神世界，神经科学家们正不断诠释背后的生物学过程，但毋庸置疑，其载体正是延续的肉体与文化。

&nbsp;

冥想不是孤立存在的，它与特定的历史、社会情境交融，展现其独特的一面。Kirmayer博士从多个维度展示了特定情境下的冥想内涵。最后，他倡议将冥想科学作为文化系统的一部分进行研究，同时应注意政治变动带来的变化。

&nbsp;

本专题的三场演讲同为冥想主题，却分别带着我们透过科学文化的偏见、特定的文化情境，感受冥想的真正魅力。语言编码的神经机制则从独特的视角对冥想的生物学基础进行理性剖析。我们期望冥想能揭开神秘的面纱，以正念的形式走入科学研究，造福全人类。

&nbsp;[:]

A joint UC Davis-TCCI Contemplative Science Summit-Symposium 2: Traditional labs may limit contemplative research?

[:en]A joint UC Davis-TCCI Contemplative Science Summit-Symposium 2: Traditional labs may limit contemplative research?[:zh]传统实验室或许是冥想研究的樊笼？冥想科学峰会·专题二[:]

The ultimate goal of scientific research is to have a positive impact on the world. While contemplation is rapidly gaining popularity, the path from empirical research to practical application has yet to be established. At the Symposium III of the Contemplative Science Summit jointly organized by Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI) and the University of California, Davis (UC Davis) on February 25, researchers drew on the experience of predecessors in bridging the gap between science and policy to explore how knowledge derived from contemplative science can play a role in social practices.
<h3></h3>
<h3>01 Law’s Middle Way: Contemplative presence and restorative justice</h3>
<h3>Sujatha baliga, J.D., Berkeley, California</h3>
&nbsp;
Dr. Sujatha Baliga from the University of California, Berkeley shared the employment of contemplation in restorative justice.
&nbsp;
The data suggests that out of 100 cases of sexual abuse against children, about 10 to 18 will be reported to the public security department, and only about 6 will end up being prosecuted and 3 convicted. This suggests that the criminal law system is not as effective as we think it is. In addition, imprisoning sex offenders at large scale can be incapacitating with limited effectiveness and may trigger retaliation. Inspired by Robert Yazzie and Howard Zehr (pioneers in the field of restorative justice), Dr. Sujatha Baliga believes that restorative justice can provide better protection for victims.
&nbsp;
 <img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1120" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/40-300x193.png" alt="" width="600" height="387" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/40-300x193.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/40-1024x660.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/40-768x495.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/40.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
&nbsp;
Howard Zehr defines restorative justice as an approach to justice that engages those who have a stake in a particular harm or crime, wherever possible, to identify and address the harms, needs, and obligations in order to minimize the harm. Whereas the present legal system focuses on “what law was broken”, “who broke it”, and “what punishment is deserved”, restorative justice focuses on “Who was harmed”, “what do they need”, and ”whose obligation is it to meet those needs”. The focus of restorative justice is not on punishment, but on repairing relationships.
&nbsp;
Mindfulness and restorative justice practices can induce complementary paradigm shifts. Effective contemplation often alternates between deep attention and insight/epiphany, as is the case in peace mediation and other restorative justice dialogues. Those involved will participate in mindfulness training together to cultivate empathy and a sense of connection, while experiencing the whole process of restorative justice. Ultimately, this will give birth to a sense of interdependence. Individual and collective epiphanies ensue as deep, attentive listening transforms into empathy with the speaker.
&nbsp;
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1121" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/41-1-300x195.png" alt="" width="600" height="390" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/41-1-300x195.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/41-1-1024x666.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/41-1-768x499.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/41-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
&nbsp;
Studies have shown that combining contemplative practices with restorative justice has effectively reduced crime rate by 44%, second offense rate by 33%, and improved victim satisfaction rate by 91%. In addition, restorative justice significantly reduced the cost of punishment.
<h3></h3>
<h3>02 Pay attention like your life depends on it: Advancing research on mindfulness training in real-world high-demand settings</h3>
<h3>Amishi Jha, Ph.D., University of Miami</h3>
&nbsp;
Dr. Amishi Jha from the University of Miami shares the role of mindfulness training in highly stressful environment.
&nbsp;
An increasing number of research has found that prolonged periods of high demands and stress will reduce cognitive functions such as attention and working memory. In the lab, multiple experimental paradigms such as the working memory task, the self-reported mind wandering task, and the sustained attention to response task have shown that when subjects are distracted, their performance on the task deteriorates significantly. In real life, when people are in a demanding and stressful environment for a long period of time, their attention and working memory will dive. And common relaxations such as listening to music and exercising are not effective in alleviating the decline in cognitive function. Mindfulness is a mental model that focuses on current experience without conceptual elaboration or emotional response. Research has shown that mindfulness training can help alleviate the decline in cognitive function of people under long-term high-pressure environments.
 
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1122" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/42-1-300x162.png" alt="" width="600" height="323" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/42-1-300x162.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/42-1-1024x552.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/42-1-768x414.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/42-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
&nbsp;
So, how do we advance mindfulness training in high-demand settings?
&nbsp;
Dr. Amishi Jha suggests that one can learn from the stage model proposed by the National Institutes of Health (NIH stage model). In this stage model, working memory and attention are impaired in stage 0 (See above). The researchers will then propose an intervention program. In stage 2, the researchers will work with trainers to devise a suitable system that can be applied on other later. Additionally, Dr. Amishi Jha suggests that the capacity of communities to address important health issues can be improved by developing effective interventions that can be sustained over time (community-based participatory research, CBPR). Using a combination of these measures, Dr. Amishi Jha hopes to achieve the best practices of mindfulness training in a high-demand, real-world context.
&nbsp;
<h3>03 Mindfulness training and peacemaking: Toward embracing reconciliation</h3>
<h3>Nava Levit-Binnun, Ph.D., Reichman University, Israel</h3>
&nbsp;
Dr. Nava Levit-Binnun from Reichman University, Israel, shared how to incorporate mindfulness into interventions that promote effective deliberation and reconciliation. Dr. Nava Levit-Binnun comes from Israel, a country that has long faced many challenges, conflicts, and demonstrations, etc. As a result, how to get people out of these conflicts has become a pressing issue.
&nbsp;
Mindfulness is an active process that combines attention and emotional regulation with challenging experiences. It enables people to explore and ultimately reevaluate challenging experiences as a source of meaning, thereby adapting to the environment and to others. Research by Nava Levit-Binnun&#8217;s team has shown that people who received mindfulness training will choose more adaptive regulatory strategies to cope with challenging situations. Mindfulness training affects the coordination of the body and brain, a process known as interception, which predicts health and how people will handle various situations. Mindfulness isn&#8217;t just an adjustment tactic, but an important approach when dealing with long-term, intractable conflicts.
&nbsp;
Does mindfulness exert influence over the emotions associated with intractable conflicts, such as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and everything that goes with it? Nava Levit-Binnun’s research team recruited 101 Israeli Jews. Most of them were students who either had taken a course on mindfulness for stress reduction or waiting to receive relevant trainings. It turned out that the latter performed better than the former in self-reporting.
&nbsp;
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1123" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/43-1-300x164.png" alt="" width="600" height="328" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/43-1-300x164.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/43-1-768x420.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/43-1.png 904w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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Can mindfulness training create conditions for cross-party communication? Research has shown that mindfulness training can help reduce the tendency to retaliate against injustice and provocations in the workplace, prejudice against minorities, and stereotyping and racial discrimination against external groups. Dr. Nava Levit-Binnun has proposed the Mind the Conflict Model, which brings contemplation into conflict situations in order to identify conflict triggers, perceive feelings and thoughts, and pause reactions to identify needs.
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Can standardized mindfulness programs meet the needs of ethnic minorities or religious groups? The answer is positive. With cultural and social support, mindfulness training is expected to deliver effective support and empower minority groups in Israel.
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Although the neural mechanisms by which mindfulness and contemplation benefit the mind and body requires further investigations, there is no doubt that it has gradually become an integral part of people&#8217;s lives by resolving individual and interpersonal difficulties and conflicts and has been integrated into society in a more meaningful and impactful way.

[:en]The ultimate goal of scientific research is to have a positive impact on the world. While contemplation is rapidly gaining popularity, the path from empirical research to practical application has yet to be established. At the Symposium III of the Contemplative Science Summit jointly organized by Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI) and the University of California, Davis (UC Davis) on February 25, researchers drew on the experience of predecessors in bridging the gap between science and policy to explore how knowledge derived from contemplative science can play a role in social practices.
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<h3>01 Law’s Middle Way: Contemplative presence and restorative justice</h3>
<h3>Sujatha baliga, J.D., Berkeley, California</h3>
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Dr. Sujatha Baliga from the University of California, Berkeley shared the employment of contemplation in restorative justice.

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The data suggests that out of 100 cases of sexual abuse against children, about 10 to 18 will be reported to the public security department, and only about 6 will end up being prosecuted and 3 convicted. This suggests that the criminal law system is not as effective as we think it is. In addition, imprisoning sex offenders at large scale can be incapacitating with limited effectiveness and may trigger retaliation. Inspired by Robert Yazzie and Howard Zehr (pioneers in the field of restorative justice), Dr. Sujatha Baliga believes that restorative justice can provide better protection for victims.

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 <img class="aligncenter wp-image-1120" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/40-300x193.png" alt="" width="600" height="387" />

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Howard Zehr defines restorative justice as an approach to justice that engages those who have a stake in a particular harm or crime, wherever possible, to identify and address the harms, needs, and obligations in order to minimize the harm. Whereas the present legal system focuses on “what law was broken”, “who broke it”, and “what punishment is deserved”, restorative justice focuses on “Who was harmed”, “what do they need”, and ”whose obligation is it to meet those needs”. The focus of restorative justice is not on punishment, but on repairing relationships.

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Mindfulness and restorative justice practices can induce complementary paradigm shifts. Effective contemplation often alternates between deep attention and insight/epiphany, as is the case in peace mediation and other restorative justice dialogues. Those involved will participate in mindfulness training together to cultivate empathy and a sense of connection, while experiencing the whole process of restorative justice. Ultimately, this will give birth to a sense of interdependence. Individual and collective epiphanies ensue as deep, attentive listening transforms into empathy with the speaker.

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<img class="aligncenter wp-image-1121" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/41-1-300x195.png" alt="" width="600" height="390" />

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Studies have shown that combining contemplative practices with restorative justice has effectively reduced crime rate by 44%, second offense rate by 33%, and improved victim satisfaction rate by 91%. In addition, restorative justice significantly reduced the cost of punishment.
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<h3>02 Pay attention like your life depends on it: Advancing research on mindfulness training in real-world high-demand settings</h3>
<h3>Amishi Jha, Ph.D., University of Miami</h3>
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Dr. Amishi Jha from the University of Miami shares the role of mindfulness training in highly stressful environment.

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An increasing number of research has found that prolonged periods of high demands and stress will reduce cognitive functions such as attention and working memory. In the lab, multiple experimental paradigms such as the working memory task, the self-reported mind wandering task, and the sustained attention to response task have shown that when subjects are distracted, their performance on the task deteriorates significantly. In real life, when people are in a demanding and stressful environment for a long period of time, their attention and working memory will dive. And common relaxations such as listening to music and exercising are not effective in alleviating the decline in cognitive function. Mindfulness is a mental model that focuses on current experience without conceptual elaboration or emotional response. Research has shown that mindfulness training can help alleviate the decline in cognitive function of people under long-term high-pressure environments.

 

<img class="aligncenter wp-image-1122" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/42-1-300x162.png" alt="" width="600" height="323" />

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So, how do we advance mindfulness training in high-demand settings?

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Dr. Amishi Jha suggests that one can learn from the stage model proposed by the National Institutes of Health (NIH stage model). In this stage model, working memory and attention are impaired in stage 0 (See above). The researchers will then propose an intervention program. In stage 2, the researchers will work with trainers to devise a suitable system that can be applied on other later. Additionally, Dr. Amishi Jha suggests that the capacity of communities to address important health issues can be improved by developing effective interventions that can be sustained over time (community-based participatory research, CBPR). Using a combination of these measures, Dr. Amishi Jha hopes to achieve the best practices of mindfulness training in a high-demand, real-world context.

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<h3>03 Mindfulness training and peacemaking: Toward embracing reconciliation</h3>
<h3>Nava Levit-Binnun, Ph.D., Reichman University, Israel</h3>
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Dr. Nava Levit-Binnun from Reichman University, Israel, shared how to incorporate mindfulness into interventions that promote effective deliberation and reconciliation. Dr. Nava Levit-Binnun comes from Israel, a country that has long faced many challenges, conflicts, and demonstrations, etc. As a result, how to get people out of these conflicts has become a pressing issue.

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Mindfulness is an active process that combines attention and emotional regulation with challenging experiences. It enables people to explore and ultimately reevaluate challenging experiences as a source of meaning, thereby adapting to the environment and to others. Research by Nava Levit-Binnun's team has shown that people who received mindfulness training will choose more adaptive regulatory strategies to cope with challenging situations. Mindfulness training affects the coordination of the body and brain, a process known as interception, which predicts health and how people will handle various situations. Mindfulness isn't just an adjustment tactic, but an important approach when dealing with long-term, intractable conflicts.

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Does mindfulness exert influence over the emotions associated with intractable conflicts, such as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and everything that goes with it? Nava Levit-Binnun’s research team recruited 101 Israeli Jews. Most of them were students who either had taken a course on mindfulness for stress reduction or waiting to receive relevant trainings. It turned out that the latter performed better than the former in self-reporting.

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<img class="aligncenter wp-image-1123" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/43-1-300x164.png" alt="" width="600" height="328" />

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Can mindfulness training create conditions for cross-party communication? Research has shown that mindfulness training can help reduce the tendency to retaliate against injustice and provocations in the workplace, prejudice against minorities, and stereotyping and racial discrimination against external groups. Dr. Nava Levit-Binnun has proposed the Mind the Conflict Model, which brings contemplation into conflict situations in order to identify conflict triggers, perceive feelings and thoughts, and pause reactions to identify needs.

&nbsp;

Can standardized mindfulness programs meet the needs of ethnic minorities or religious groups? The answer is positive. With cultural and social support, mindfulness training is expected to deliver effective support and empower minority groups in Israel.

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Although the neural mechanisms by which mindfulness and contemplation benefit the mind and body requires further investigations, there is no doubt that it has gradually become an integral part of people's lives by resolving individual and interpersonal difficulties and conflicts and has been integrated into society in a more meaningful and impactful way.[:zh]科学研究的最终目标是对世界产生积极影响。虽然冥想正在迅速普及，但从实证研究到实践应用的路径尚未确立。北京时间2月25日，在天桥脑科学研究院（TCCI）与美国加州大学戴维斯分校（UC Davis）联合举办的冥想科学会议的“专题研讨会三”上，科研人员们借鉴前人消除科学与政策之间鸿沟的经验，探索了冥想科学产生的知识如何在社会实践中起作用。
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<h3>法律的中庸之道：</h3>
<h3>冥想在恢复性司法中的应用</h3>
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来自美国加州大学伯克利分校的Sujatha Baliga博士分享了冥想在恢复性司法中的应用。

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数据表明，在100起儿童性侵案件中，约10~18起会向公安部门报案，最终仅有约6人被起诉，3人被定罪。这表明，刑事法律体系并不如我们想象中那么有效。此外，对罪犯进行大规模监禁会让其丧失工作能力，且有效性有限，并可能引发报复心理。受到Robert Yazzie与Howard Zehr（恢复性司法先驱）的启发，Sujatha Baliga博士认为恢复性司法能够更好地保护受害者。

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[caption id="attachment_1120" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1120" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/40-300x193.png" alt="" width="600" height="387" /> ▷ 当前司法系统与恢复性司法之间的比对[/caption]

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Howard Zehr对于恢复性司法的定义为：恢复性司法是一种正义的方法，尽可能地让那些在特定伤害或犯罪中有利害关系的人参与进来，共同识别和解决伤害、需求和义务，从而尽可能地降低伤害。当前的司法系统关注“该事件触碰了哪条法律”“谁触碰了法律”“犯罪分子应该接受什么惩罚”这三个问题，而恢复性司法则关注“谁是受害者”“受害者的需求是什么”“谁有义务满足受害者的需求”这三个问题。恢复性司法的重点不在于惩罚，而在于修复关系。

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正念与恢复性司法实践会引发互补范式转变。有效的冥想通常可以在深度关注和洞察/顿悟之间交替，和平调解和其他恢复性司法对话也存在这一现象。事件相关人员共同参与正念练习，在练习中产生同理心、连接感，感受恢复性司法过程，最终使人们产生相互依赖感。当深沉、专注的倾听转变为与说话者的共鸣时，个体和集体的顿悟随之而来。

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[caption id="attachment_1121" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1121" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/41-1-300x195.png" alt="" width="600" height="390" /> ▷ 长期的力量[/caption]

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研究表明，将冥想练习与恢复性司法结合后，有效地改善了犯罪事件的发生。犯罪率减少44%，再犯率减少33%，受害者的满意度达到91%。此外，恢复性司法大大降低了惩罚成本。

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<h3>抱着生死攸关的态度集中注意力：</h3>
<h3>在现实世界的高要求环境中推进正念训练的研究</h3>
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来自美国迈阿密大学的Amishi Jha博士分享了正念训练在高压环境下的作用。

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越来越多的研究发现，长时间的高要求和高压力会降低认知功能，如注意力和工作记忆。在实验室中，多种实验范式如工作记忆任务（working memory task）、自我报告的走神任务（self-reported mind wandering task）、持续注意任务（sustained attention to response task）均表明，当被试注意力分散时，做任务时的表现明显变差。在实际生活里，当人们长时间处于高要求、高压力的环境中时，注意力和工作记忆能力显著下降。而我们常用的听音乐、运动等放松方式，对于缓解认知功能的下降并不有效。正念是一种专注于当前经验而没有概念上的阐述或情感反应的心理模式。研究表明，正念训练有助于缓解长期高压环境下人们认知功能的下降。

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[caption id="attachment_1122" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1122" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/42-1-300x162.png" alt="" width="600" height="323" /> ▷ 阶段模型[/caption]

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那么，我们如何在高要求环境中推进正念训练呢？

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Amishi Jha博士提出，可以学习美国国立卫生研究院提出的阶段模型（NIH stage model）。在这个阶段模型中，工作记忆和注意力会在阶段0中受损。（见上图）然后，研究人员提出一个干预方案。在阶段2，研究人员将与训练者合作，创建一个合适的系统，之后再把它转移到其他人身上。此外，Amishi Jha博士还提出，可以通过制定可长期维持的有效干预措施，来提高社区处理重要健康问题的能力（community-based participatory research, CBPR）。综合运用上述措施，Amishi Jha博士希望在高需求的现实环境中，实现正念训练的最佳实践。

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<h3>正念训练和调停技能：拥抱和解</h3>
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来自以色列莱奇曼大学的Nava Levit-Binnun博士分享了如何将正念纳入促进有效审议和和解的干预措施中。Nava Levit-Binnun博士来自以色列，该国长期面临诸多挑战、冲突、示威活动等，如何让人们走出这些冲突成了亟待解决的问题。

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正念是一个将注意力和情绪调节与具有挑战性的经验结合起来的积极过程。它使人们能够探索并最终重新评估具有挑战性的经历，将其作为意义的来源，从而适应环境和他人。Nava Levit-Binnun团队的研究表明，经过正念训练的人选择更具适应性的监管策略来应对具有挑战性的情况。正念练习实际上会影响身体和大脑的协调，该过程被称作侦听（interception），它可以预测健康状况，预测人们将如何处理各种情况。正念不仅仅是一种调节策略，它在处理长期棘手的冲突时也非常重要。

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正念是否会影响与棘手冲突（如巴以冲突）相关的情绪以及随之而来的一切？Nava Levit-Binnun团队招募了101个以色列犹太人。他们中的大多数要么是上过正念减压课程的学生，要么是等待进行正念训练的学生。与未进行正念训练的人群相比，进行正念训练的人群在自我汇报中表现更好。

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[caption id="attachment_1123" align="aligncenter" width="600"]<img class="wp-image-1123" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/43-1-300x164.png" alt="" width="600" height="328" /> ▷ Nava Levit-Binnun博士提出的模型[/caption]

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正念训练能为跨党派交流创造条件吗？研究表明，正念训练有助于减少对工作场所中不公正事件和挑衅行为的报复倾向，减少对少数民族的偏见，减少对外部群体的刻板印象和种族歧视。Nava Levit-Binnun博士提出了注意冲突模型（mind the conflict model），将冥想带入冲突的情境中，从而识别冲突的触发点，意识到感觉、想法，并暂停反应，确定需求。

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标准的正念治疗方案能满足少数民族或宗教群体的需求吗？答案是肯定的。借助文化支撑与社会支持，正念训练有望有效支持和赋能以色列的少数群体。

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<h3>写在最后</h3>
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虽然正念冥想有益身心的神经机制还有待进一步研究，但毋庸置疑的是，它正逐渐深入人们的生活，解决个体、人际的困难与冲突，以更有意义、更有影响的方式融入社会之中。[:]

A joint UC Davis-TCCI Contemplative Science Summit-Symposium 3: How to use mindfulness training to repair relationship?

[:en]A joint UC Davis-TCCI Contemplative Science Summit-Symposium 3: How to use mindfulness training to repair relationship?[:zh]如何用正念训练修复关系？冥想科学峰会·专题三[:]

“In the face of the new AI technology that is developing by leaps and bounds, as a neurosurgeon, I&#8217;m not worried about losing my job, but more concerned about how to embrace AI to better serve patients, and to allow us doctors to get off work earlier. For example, AI-assisted clinical interrogations, brain image and EEG data analysis, and surgical scheme formulation; or examining medical issues from a completely new perspective of AI, overcoming the subjective shortcomings of studying human brain, and tackling brain diseases as soon as possible,” said Professor Mao Ying, President of Huashan Hospital and Director of the Translational Center of TCCI, in his opening speech at a seminar on AI-assisted solutions to brain diseases jointly hosted by the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI), Huashan Hospital (National Medical Center for Neurological Diseases) and Shanghai Mental Health Center (National Medical Center for Mental Diseases) on April 9.
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At the meeting, experts from the AI and clinical fields had active exchanges. Professor Xu Yifeng, Director of the Brain Health Institute at National Center for Mental Disorder, Professor Wang Zhen, Vice President of the Shanghai Mental Health Center, and Professor Li Weidong, Executive Director of the Institute of Psychology and Behavioral Science at Shanghai Jiao Tong University, attended the meeting.
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<h3>AI + wearable devices will help precision medicine solve the last-mile problem</h3>
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AI scientist Dr. Hu Pengwei pointed out that the application scenarios of AI in the medical field are extremely wide, and currently it mainly serves three purposes: reducing the burden of repetitive work, identifying traces and clues that are difficult to detect by human beings, and conducting clue analysis in complex environments. AI also has great potential in precision medicine. GPT&#8217;s summarizing and inductive ability has shown great strength in early examination and diagnosis, out-of-hospital emotional support and assistance, big data analytics and pattern identification. He predicts that with the combined innovation of AI technology and wearable smart devices, precision medicine is expected to solve the last-mile problem in the next three to five years.
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<h3>Deciphering invasive EEG to achieve infinite possibilities</h3>
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Professor Chen Liang, Deputy Director of Neurosurgery and Leader of Functional Neurosurgery at Fudan University-affiliated Huashan Hospital, focused on the construction of invasive EEG databases and the prospects of augmented AI technology in deciphering brain functions. Invasive EEG refers to the implantation of electrodes into the brain or placing them on the surface of the brain to obtain EEG data with high signal-to-noise ratio. This type of data is of critical value in the fields of neuroscience and neurosurgery, as neuronal firing is the most basic form of nerve cell activities. By implanting high-density surface or deep electrodes, researchers expect to collect more data on EEG activities. In the case of Parkinson&#8217;s disease patients, for example, clinicians urgently need to find the best treatment options through a large number of intracranial stimulation experiments, which is burdensome for patients. He hopes that augmented AI technology will complete the time-consuming and repetitive work previously done by human beings to address unanswered scientific questions, including epilepsy traceability warning and consciousness transformation.
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<h3>A prospective key role in treating AD</h3>
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Professor Yu Jintai, Deputy Director of the Department of Neurology at Fudan University-affiliated Huashan Hospital and Leader of cognitive disorders research at the National Medical Center for Neurological Diseases, pointed out that to achieve early diagnosis of AD, it is necessary to set up large cohorts, especially community-based cohorts, in order to identify patients in the preclinical stage. The GPT model holds great potential in disease management which will improve medical automation such as the construction of a disease management platform to achieve individualized patient condition assessment, automated analysis reporting, intelligent follow-up Q&amp;A, and other functions. He also mentioned that GPT faces many challenges in the field of AD diagnosis and research, such as the lack of high-quality medical data, data security issues, and the reliance of effective answers on the training data. However, he also believes that AI is expected to play a key role in the field of AD by continuously deepening research and practice.
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<h3>Contributive to dream decoding</h3>
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Professor Yu Huan, Executive Director of the Sleep Disorders Clinic at Fudan University-affiliated Huashan Hospital, emphasized the impact of sleep disorders on quality of life, such as cerebrovascular accidents and dementia. Currently, polysomnography (PSG) is the standard technique for sleep disorder diagnosis, but it is costly and inefficient. Therefore, researchers are looking forward to improving diagnostic methods through artificial intelligence technology. Professor Yu Huan introduced the application of dream research in the field of sleep disorders, such as improving memory by controlling dreams. There are more than 150 methods for encoding and calculating dreams, and the researchers hope to design a more practical research tool with the help of AI technology; at the same time, mobile apps are developed to encourage individuals to record and share their dreams, so as to carry out dream research more relevant to daily life.
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<h3>Robot-assisted consultation and diagnosis for depression patients</h3>
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According to Associate Professor Wu Mengyue of the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at Shanghai Jiao Tong University, the development of a robot based on human-computer conversations for clinical consultations on depression, as well as the use of speech and language features to build a knowledge graph of relevant symptoms and mental illnesses, is the future direction of early diagnosis and treatment of depression.
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According to her, the diagnosis of many mental illnesses relies heavily on face-to-face clinical interviews and conversations. Theoretically, AI models should be able to learn this skill as well. Meanwhile, speech and language are already used as objective biomarkers in the DSM-5 diagnostic manual to diagnose mental illnesses including depression. The development of a robot based on human-computer conversations for depression diagnosis would allow such conversations to be as accurate as the description of symptoms obtained by doctors through in-depth communications with patients. She also introduces how to treat speech and language features as computable and transferable methods, as well as the creation of knowledge graphs of relevant symptoms and diseases through the self-expressions of patients, which will provide new methodologies for detecting a wide range of diseases.
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<h3>New explorations of early diagnosis and treatment of depression</h3>
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Professor Peng Daihui, Director of the Department of Mood Disorders of Shanghai Mental Health Center, introduced that the major research project he is leading &#8212; “Prospective Clinical Cohort Study of Depression”, which aims to collect nationwide data from patients with depression, and to create a large-scale, multi-center, normalized and standardized long-term case database.
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Currently, the team has initially constructed a diagnostic and typing model of the brain function network for depression by combining brain imaging and clinical neuropsychological assessment. They propose to further apply digital phenotyping technology, including audio, video, EEG and eye movement, and other multidimensional stereoscopic big data for feature extraction, screening, and modeling. He pointed out that such multidimensional stereoscopic big data may improve the accuracy rate of depression diagnosis, optimize screening and assessment methods as well as the prediction of risk events; the combination of big data and artificial intelligence technologies has great potential in providing sensitive and specific diagnostic and treatment solutions for patients.
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<h3>Unlocking genetic secrets and probing knowledge graphs</h3>
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Professor Lin Guaning of the School of Biomedical Engineering at Shanghai Jiao Tong University demonstrated the results achieved by applying GPT technology in the fields of mental health and brain science research through continuous optimization of GPT training and rule setting.
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In the area of stress, depression and suicide risk detection, the research team has improved the accuracy of GPT through the prompt engineering and has been able to initially achieve accurate classification and prediction. The team also successfully extracted structured information from unstructured text, and by providing a prescribed schema for the GPT, achieved the standardized storage of such information in the database, which can be valuable for future research and clinical practice. Despite the challenges encountered in the application process, such as API interface limitations, Professor Lin believes that large language models like GPT will play an increasingly important role in mental health and brain science research, and will soon have the ability to process data other than textual language, such as multimodal data from imaging, EEG, and bio-omics, and to reason about the intrinsic logic amongst the data. This will revolutionize the existing research paradigm and drive the rapid development of the mental health and brain science research.

[:en]“In the face of the new AI technology that is developing by leaps and bounds, as a neurosurgeon, I'm not worried about losing my job, but more concerned about how to embrace AI to better serve patients, and to allow us doctors to get off work earlier. For example, AI-assisted clinical interrogations, brain image and EEG data analysis, and surgical scheme formulation; or examining medical issues from a completely new perspective of AI, overcoming the subjective shortcomings of studying human brain, and tackling brain diseases as soon as possible,” said Professor Mao Ying, President of Huashan Hospital and Director of the Translational Center of TCCI, in his opening speech at a seminar on AI-assisted solutions to brain diseases jointly hosted by the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI), Huashan Hospital (National Medical Center for Neurological Diseases) and Shanghai Mental Health Center (National Medical Center for Mental Diseases) on April 9.

&nbsp;

At the meeting, experts from the AI and clinical fields had active exchanges. Professor Xu Yifeng, Director of the Brain Health Institute at National Center for Mental Disorder, Professor Wang Zhen, Vice President of the Shanghai Mental Health Center, and Professor Li Weidong, Executive Director of the Institute of Psychology and Behavioral Science at Shanghai Jiao Tong University, attended the meeting.

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<h3>AI + wearable devices will help precision medicine solve the last-mile problem</h3>
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AI scientist Dr. Hu Pengwei pointed out that the application scenarios of AI in the medical field are extremely wide, and currently it mainly serves three purposes: reducing the burden of repetitive work, identifying traces and clues that are difficult to detect by human beings, and conducting clue analysis in complex environments. AI also has great potential in precision medicine. GPT's summarizing and inductive ability has shown great strength in early examination and diagnosis, out-of-hospital emotional support and assistance, big data analytics and pattern identification. He predicts that with the combined innovation of AI technology and wearable smart devices, precision medicine is expected to solve the last-mile problem in the next three to five years.

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<h3>Deciphering invasive EEG to achieve infinite possibilities</h3>
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Professor Chen Liang, Deputy Director of Neurosurgery and Leader of Functional Neurosurgery at Fudan University-affiliated Huashan Hospital, focused on the construction of invasive EEG databases and the prospects of augmented AI technology in deciphering brain functions. Invasive EEG refers to the implantation of electrodes into the brain or placing them on the surface of the brain to obtain EEG data with high signal-to-noise ratio. This type of data is of critical value in the fields of neuroscience and neurosurgery, as neuronal firing is the most basic form of nerve cell activities. By implanting high-density surface or deep electrodes, researchers expect to collect more data on EEG activities. In the case of Parkinson's disease patients, for example, clinicians urgently need to find the best treatment options through a large number of intracranial stimulation experiments, which is burdensome for patients. He hopes that augmented AI technology will complete the time-consuming and repetitive work previously done by human beings to address unanswered scientific questions, including epilepsy traceability warning and consciousness transformation.

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<h3>A prospective key role in treating AD</h3>
&nbsp;

Professor Yu Jintai, Deputy Director of the Department of Neurology at Fudan University-affiliated Huashan Hospital and Leader of cognitive disorders research at the National Medical Center for Neurological Diseases, pointed out that to achieve early diagnosis of AD, it is necessary to set up large cohorts, especially community-based cohorts, in order to identify patients in the preclinical stage. The GPT model holds great potential in disease management which will improve medical automation such as the construction of a disease management platform to achieve individualized patient condition assessment, automated analysis reporting, intelligent follow-up Q&amp;A, and other functions. He also mentioned that GPT faces many challenges in the field of AD diagnosis and research, such as the lack of high-quality medical data, data security issues, and the reliance of effective answers on the training data. However, he also believes that AI is expected to play a key role in the field of AD by continuously deepening research and practice.

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<h3>Contributive to dream decoding</h3>
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Professor Yu Huan, Executive Director of the Sleep Disorders Clinic at Fudan University-affiliated Huashan Hospital, emphasized the impact of sleep disorders on quality of life, such as cerebrovascular accidents and dementia. Currently, polysomnography (PSG) is the standard technique for sleep disorder diagnosis, but it is costly and inefficient. Therefore, researchers are looking forward to improving diagnostic methods through artificial intelligence technology. Professor Yu Huan introduced the application of dream research in the field of sleep disorders, such as improving memory by controlling dreams. There are more than 150 methods for encoding and calculating dreams, and the researchers hope to design a more practical research tool with the help of AI technology; at the same time, mobile apps are developed to encourage individuals to record and share their dreams, so as to carry out dream research more relevant to daily life.

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<h3>Robot-assisted consultation and diagnosis for depression patients</h3>
&nbsp;

According to Associate Professor Wu Mengyue of the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at Shanghai Jiao Tong University, the development of a robot based on human-computer conversations for clinical consultations on depression, as well as the use of speech and language features to build a knowledge graph of relevant symptoms and mental illnesses, is the future direction of early diagnosis and treatment of depression.

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According to her, the diagnosis of many mental illnesses relies heavily on face-to-face clinical interviews and conversations. Theoretically, AI models should be able to learn this skill as well. Meanwhile, speech and language are already used as objective biomarkers in the DSM-5 diagnostic manual to diagnose mental illnesses including depression. The development of a robot based on human-computer conversations for depression diagnosis would allow such conversations to be as accurate as the description of symptoms obtained by doctors through in-depth communications with patients. She also introduces how to treat speech and language features as computable and transferable methods, as well as the creation of knowledge graphs of relevant symptoms and diseases through the self-expressions of patients, which will provide new methodologies for detecting a wide range of diseases.

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<h3>New explorations of early diagnosis and treatment of depression</h3>
&nbsp;

Professor Peng Daihui, Director of the Department of Mood Disorders of Shanghai Mental Health Center, introduced that the major research project he is leading -- “Prospective Clinical Cohort Study of Depression”, which aims to collect nationwide data from patients with depression, and to create a large-scale, multi-center, normalized and standardized long-term case database.

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Currently, the team has initially constructed a diagnostic and typing model of the brain function network for depression by combining brain imaging and clinical neuropsychological assessment. They propose to further apply digital phenotyping technology, including audio, video, EEG and eye movement, and other multidimensional stereoscopic big data for feature extraction, screening, and modeling. He pointed out that such multidimensional stereoscopic big data may improve the accuracy rate of depression diagnosis, optimize screening and assessment methods as well as the prediction of risk events; the combination of big data and artificial intelligence technologies has great potential in providing sensitive and specific diagnostic and treatment solutions for patients.

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<h3>Unlocking genetic secrets and probing knowledge graphs</h3>
&nbsp;

Professor Lin Guaning of the School of Biomedical Engineering at Shanghai Jiao Tong University demonstrated the results achieved by applying GPT technology in the fields of mental health and brain science research through continuous optimization of GPT training and rule setting.

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In the area of stress, depression and suicide risk detection, the research team has improved the accuracy of GPT through the prompt engineering and has been able to initially achieve accurate classification and prediction. The team also successfully extracted structured information from unstructured text, and by providing a prescribed schema for the GPT, achieved the standardized storage of such information in the database, which can be valuable for future research and clinical practice. Despite the challenges encountered in the application process, such as API interface limitations, Professor Lin believes that large language models like GPT will play an increasingly important role in mental health and brain science research, and will soon have the ability to process data other than textual language, such as multimodal data from imaging, EEG, and bio-omics, and to reason about the intrinsic logic amongst the data. This will revolutionize the existing research paradigm and drive the rapid development of the mental health and brain science research.[:zh]“面对发展一日千里的AI新技术，作为一名神经外科大夫，我并不担心会失业，更关心如何拥抱AI，更好地服务患者，还能让我们医生早点下班。比如AI辅助问诊、辅助分析大脑影像和脑电数据，制定手术方案等；再比如从AI全新的视角审视，打破人脑研究人脑的主观性障碍，早日攻克脑疾病。”4月9日，由天桥脑科学研究院（TCCI）携手华山医院（国家神经疾病医学中心）、上海市精神卫生中心（国家精神疾病医学中心）联合主办的AI助力攻克脑疾病研讨会上，华山医院院长、TCCI转化中心主任毛颖教授开门见山地说。

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会上，来自AI、临床领域的专家进行了积极交流。国家精神疾病医学中心脑健康研究院院长徐一峰教授、上海市精神卫生中心副院长王振教授、上海交通大学心理与行为科学研究院执行院长李卫东教授等参加了会议。

&nbsp;
<h3>AI+可穿戴设备，</h3>
<h3>精准医疗即将打通最后一公里</h3>
&nbsp;

人工智能科学家胡鹏伟博士指出，AI在医疗领域的应用场景极为广泛，目前主要实现三大功能：减轻重复劳动负担、识别人工难以察觉的痕迹和线索，以及在复杂环境中进行线索分析。AI在精准医疗方面也有巨大潜力，GPT的总结与归纳能力在早期检查与诊断、院外情感支持及辅助、大数据分析与模式识别等方面已经显现出强大实力。他预测，凭借AI技术和可穿戴智能设备等的结合创新，精准医疗有望在3～5年内完成它的最后一公里。

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<h3>解密侵入式脑电，塑造无限可能</h3>
&nbsp;

复旦大学附属华山医院神经外科副主任、功能神经外科带头人陈亮教授重点介绍了侵入性脑电数据库的建设以及增强AI技术在脑功能破译中的应用前景。侵入性脑电指的是将电极植入大脑或置于大脑表面，以获取高信噪比的脑电数据。这类数据在神经科学和神经外科领域具有至关重要的价值，因为神经元放电是神经细胞最基本的活动方式。通过建立高密度表面或深部电极，研究人员期望收集更多关于脑电活动的数据。以帕金森病患者为例，临床医生迫切需要通过大量颅内刺激实验来寻找最佳治疗方案，但这种方法对患者造成的负担较重。他希望借助增强AI技术完成耗时且重复性较高的工作，能协助解决尚未解答的科学问题，包括癫痫溯源预警和意识转化。

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<h3>有望在攻克AD中发挥关键作用</h3>
&nbsp;

复旦大学附属华山医院神经内科副主任、国家神经疾病医学中心认知障碍方向带头人郁金泰教授指出，为实现AD早期诊断，有必要建立大型队列，尤其是社区队列，以便识别临床前阶段的患者。GPT模型在疾病管理方面的潜力，如搭建疾病管理平台，实现患者个体化病情评估、自动化分析报告、智能随访问答等功能，以提高医疗自动化水平。他也提到，GPT在AD诊疗与研究领域所面临的诸多挑战，如高质量医疗数据的缺乏、数据安全性问题、回答实效性受训练数据影响等。但他同时认为，通过不断深化研究与实践，AI有望在AD领域发挥关键作用。

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<h3>期待助力解码梦境</h3>
&nbsp;

复旦大学附属华山医院睡眠障碍诊疗中心执行主任于欢教授强调了睡眠障碍对生活质量的影响，如脑血管意外、痴呆等。目前，多导睡眠监测是睡眠障碍诊断的标准技术，但其成本高且效率低。因此，研究者们期待通过人工智能技术改进诊断方法。于欢教授介绍了梦境研究在睡眠障碍领域的应用，如通过控制梦境提高记忆力。目前已有超过150种编码和计算梦境的方法，研究者们希望借助AI技术制作一个实用性更强的研究工具；同时，开发移动客户端以鼓励个体记录和分享自己的梦境，从而进行更贴近日常生活的梦境研究。

&nbsp;
<h3>打造抑郁症问诊人机对话助手</h3>
&nbsp;

上海交通大学计算机科学与工程系吴梦玥副教授认为，开发基于人机对话的抑郁症问诊机器人、以及利用语音和语言特征构建症状与精神疾病知识图谱，是未来抑郁症早诊早治的方向。

&nbsp;

她说，很多精神疾病的诊断主要依赖于面对面的问诊和交谈，理论上，模型也应该能够学会这个技能。同时，语音和语言作为客观生物标记物，在DSM-5诊断手册中已经被用于诊断抑郁症等精神疾病。开发基于人机对话的抑郁症问诊机器人，通过深度交流，人机对话能够得到与医生所得到的同样精确的症状描述。她还介绍了如何将语音和语言特征作为可计算、可迁移的方式，以及通过患者的自我表达建立症状和疾病的知识图谱，为多种疾病检测提供了新的思路。

&nbsp;
<h3>抑郁症早诊早治新探索</h3>
&nbsp;

上海市精神卫生中心心境障碍科主任彭代辉教授介绍，他正在领导的重大科研项目“抑郁症的前瞻性临床队列研究”旨在收集全国范围内的抑郁症患者数据，创建一个多中心、规范化、标准化的大规模长期病例数据库。

&nbsp;

目前，团队通过脑影像学和临床神经心理评估两个维度相结合初步构建了抑郁症脑功能网络诊断与分型模型。他们拟进一步运用数字表型技术，包括音频、视频、脑电和眼动等多维度立体大数据进行特征提取、筛选和建模。他指出，这种多维度立体大数据可能提高抑郁症诊断的精准度，优化筛查评估方法以及风险事件预测；大数据与人工智能技术相结合，在为患者提供敏感和特异的诊疗方案中有着巨大潜力。

&nbsp;
<h3>解锁基因秘密，挖掘知识图谱</h3>
&nbsp;

上海交通大学生物医学工程学院林关宁教授展示了通过持续优化GPT的训练和规则设定，将GPT技术应用于心理健康和脑科学研究领域所取得的成果。

&nbsp;

在压力、抑郁症和自杀风险检测方面，研究团队通过改进提示工程（Prompt Engineering），实现了GPT准确性的提升，已能初步实现准确的分类和预判。团队还成功地从非结构化文本中提取了结构化信息，通过为GPT提供规定模式，实现了将这些信息规范地存储在数据库中，为未来研究和临床实践提供了宝贵数据。尽管在应用过程中遇到了一些挑战，如API接口局限性等，但林关宁教授相信像GPT等大型语言模型在心理健康和脑科学研究领域将发挥越来越重要的作用，很快将有能力处理除文本语言之外的数据，如影像、脑电、生物组学等多模态的数据，并推理数据之间的内在逻辑。这将为现有的科研范式带来革命性变革，并推动心理健康和脑科学研究领域的快速发展。[:]

AI helps tackle brain diseases, reducing workload for doctors

[:en]AI helps tackle brain diseases, reducing workload for doctors[:zh]AI助力，早日攻克脑疾病，还能让医生早点下班[:]

The brain carries endless mysteries and unlimited potential. It is the most complex and mysterious part of the human body and has always been the focus of scientists&#8217; exploration. This delicate organ not only controls our behavior, but also deeply affects our emotions, thinking and memory. However, our understanding of the brain has so far been only the tip of the iceberg.
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From May 13 to 14 (Beijing time), Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute (TCCI) and NeuroPSI organized an international conference themed “Brain, Behavior &amp; Beyond”.
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On the first day of the conference, five renowned scientists in the field of brain sciences gave a lecture on brain development and sensory cognition. On the second day, four renowned scholars, including Nobel Laureate Professor Michael Rosbash, enthusiastically shared the latest research progress in the areas of circadian rhythms, emotions, and strokes.
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TCCI has live streamed the conference online to allow more scholars to participate in the scientific event first-hand.
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<h3>Tagging circadian neurons to edit sleep?</h3>
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With summer approaching, we occasionally see a few annoying fruit flies on the fruit we forgot to eat in time. However, this rice-sized creature is a favorite in scientific research. As a model organism, the fruit fly is widely used in the study of biological rhythms.
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Professor Michael Rosbash from Brandeis University in the United States has used fruit flies to study circadian rhythms, a pioneering work that earned him the Nobel Prize in 2017. In this session, Professor Rosbash talked about how to incorporate new technologies for studying the circadian rhythm of fruit flies.
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1101" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/23-2-300x169.png" alt="" width="600" height="339" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/23-2-300x169.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/23-2-1024x578.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/23-2-768x434.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/23-2.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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As a new method for assessing the early POI-II activities in RNA transcription, BuTT-Seq can record transcriptional regulation of RNAs. It is faster and more efficient than the established Nascet-Seq and NET-Seq, which provides a time window for observing the mRNA of the core clock gene of fruit flies, which has a short maintenance time of activity. In addition, the eRNA identified by BuTT-Seq is an enhancer that has not yet been defined and is hypothesized to exist only in clock neurons.
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The brain of a fruit fly possesses between 10,000 to 30,000 cell types, and the multitude of cell types provides the cellular biological basis for behaviors such as circadian rhythm, sleep, learning memory, fighting, motivation, mating and courtship, and addiction. The circadian behaviors of fruit flies are regulated by a variety of neuronal subtypes. Regulator genes, and genes related to neural connectivity molecules are the most abundant molecular markers for cell subtype clustering. Meanwhile, single-cell sequencing (scRNA-seq) can further type the circadian neurons and thus discover the correlation of marker gene expression.
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1102" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/24-2-300x146.png" alt="" width="600" height="292" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/24-2-300x146.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/24-2-1024x499.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/24-2-768x374.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/24-2.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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During the meeting, Professor Rosbash pointed out that there are very significant cell surface molecules in the biological clock system of adult individuals, which specifically interact with each other to regulate the specific firing of neurons during development. The expression of cell surface molecules is neuron-specific. For example, G protein-coupled receptors can be a good marker for neuronal typing, which is important for the maintenance of neural circuits and neuroplasticity.
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In the end his presentation, Professor Rosbash concluded that scientific progress relies on new technologies, methods, and ideas, and the emergence of new technologies paves the way for new methods and ideas.
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<h3>Mitochondrion is the culprit responsible for depression and anxiety?</h3>
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Living in a fast-paced world, have you experienced the same feelings of anxiety due to approaching deadlines? Have you chosen to give up instead of working hard as a result of heavy social stress? These experiences encouraged researchers to embark on research into how human brains encode negative emotions. Professor Carmen Sandi from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne talked about the mechanisms behind the engagement of mitochondria in regulating anxiety and motivation from the perspective of brain circuits.
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1103" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/25-1-300x179.png" alt="" width="600" height="358" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/25-1-300x179.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/25-1-1024x611.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/25-1-768x458.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/25-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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Professor Sandi selected rats as the experimental subjects and made them anxious through social competition experiments and used molecular biology techniques and electrophysiological recordings to reveal the differences in the activity of NAc neurons in the low-anxiety group and high-anxiety group. She further used rescue, overexpression, and inhibition experiments to demonstrate that the mitofusin-2 (MFN-2) in the MSN-D1 and MSN-D2 neurons in the NAc brain region is necessary for the structural and functional alterations of the MSN neurons in the different anxiety groups.
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1104" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/26-1-300x157.png" alt="" width="600" height="313" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/26-1-300x157.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/26-1-1024x535.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/26-1-768x401.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/26-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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Finally, Professor Sandi shared unpublished research findings. The research team used transgenic technology to compare the functional differences of MFN-2 in MSN-D1 and MSN-D2 neurons, to further validate the effect of limbic system modulation of anxiety on motivation, and the alteration of blood-brain barrier by stress and anxiety.
Based on these findings, Professor Sandi proposed the neural encoding hypothesis of mitochondria and metabolism of stress-coping/motivational behaviors, that is: altered mitochondrial MFN-2 levels &#8212; abnormal structural function of specific neurons &#8212; altered behaviors, which has been validated by human experiments and experiments on the hippocampus of rats.
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<h3>Sleep consumes energy as well; energy metabolism is modulating sleep?</h3>
 
The daytime and night are two parallels whose paths will never cross. Some people are full of energy during the day, while some tossing and turning late at night. Sleep is an instinctive behavior of human beings that evolved from living with nature and is regulated by biological rhythms. Professor Gero Miesenböck from the University of Oxford shared the microscopic mystery of sleep disorders from a biological perspective.
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1105" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/27-1-300x146.png" alt="" width="600" height="292" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/27-1-300x146.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/27-1-1024x498.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/27-1-768x373.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/27-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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Sleep is regulated by specific neurons whose electrical signals are altered when there is pressure to fall asleep, and waking is influenced by the activation of the dopamine system. So, the researchers wondered, what causes the stress of falling asleep? And what regulates waking and sleep?
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It was found that sleep stress is associated with the loss of carbonyl reductase. Carbonyl hydroxyl compounds originated from polyunsaturated fatty acid are signaling intermediates that couple mitochondrial electron transport to sleep and convert Kvβ to NADP+ channels. The loss of carbonyl reductase prevents these processes from operating properly.
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1106" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/28-1-300x166.png" alt="" width="600" height="331" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/28-1-300x166.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/28-1-1024x565.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/28-1-768x424.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/28-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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Professor Miesenböck further elaborated on the microscopic processes of energy metabolism during waking and sleep and how it interfaces with ion channels and affects sleep. Kvβ enhances sleep by sensing redox reactions during cellular energy metabolism, and this regulation is achieved by controlling the activity of sleep-associated neurons. In contrast, sleep deprivation impairs the lipid oxidation chain reaction, which in turn affects the sleep-enhancing attribute of Kvβ.
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In the end, Professor Miesenböck concluded that sleep is not only related to metabolism, but also involved in memory consolidation and even exerts influence over the lifespan of an individual.
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<h3>Small vessels harbor big problems; Is stroke preventable?</h3>
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In the microscopic world, a mutation of a gene and the abnormal function of certain cells may cause severe health issues such as vascular obstruction or rupture. During the meeting, Professor Anne Joutel from the Institut de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences de Paris, shared the latest research progress on the occurrence of cerebral small vessel diseases (CSVD).
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Professor Joutel began by describing how abnormal cerebrovascular events cause blood flow variability in the brain when CSVD occurs. To facilitate the presentation, she chose to share a highly prevalent CSVD: CADASIL (cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy). A distinctive feature of CADASIL is a site mutation of the NOTCH3 gene when encoding cysteine. A mouse model suggests that early onset of CADASIL is characterized by an increase in the cerebral small vessel basilar membrane NOTCH3ECD and the deposition of granular oleophilic material GOM, accompanied by the cell degeneration in the smooth muscle of small cerebral arteries.
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How does increased NOTCH3ECD cause changes in cerebral blood flow? In fact, increased NOTCH3ECD causes an increase in extracellular matrices such as IMP3, which in turn leads to abnormal capillary-arterial electrical signaling, and at the same time, NOTCH3ECD accumulation induces a dysfunction similar to that of potassium channelopathy. Both pathological processes can lead to reduced regulation of cerebral blood flow; On the other hand, passive immunization allows the body to acquire the ability to clear NOTCH3ECD and thus avoid abnormal blood flow in CADASIL mice, suggesting that NOTCH3ECD is necessary for the development of CADASIL.
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1107" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/29-300x127.png" alt="" width="600" height="254" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/29-300x127.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/29-1024x434.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/29-768x326.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/29.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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Professor Joutel went on to introduce the relationship between white matter damage caused by ischemic CSVD and abnormal blood-brain barrier function. Using imaging techniques including MRI and DTI, the latest study found that although CADASIL mice showed myelin hypoplasia and axonal structural abnormalities, exogenous tracers could not enter the white matter bundles, suggesting that although the white matter structure was altered, the blood-brain barrier was not significantly impaired.
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<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-1108" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/30-1-300x158.png" alt="" width="600" height="316" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/30-1-300x158.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/30-1-1024x539.png 1024w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/30-1-768x405.png 768w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/30-1.png 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />
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In the end, Professor Joutel compared the differences between ischemic and hemorrhagic CSVD. Both hemorrhagic CSVD (CoI4a1 mutation) and ischemic CSVD (CADASIL) are genetically heterogeneous and are accompanied by a decrease in arterial smooth muscle cells; hemorrhagic CSVD usually involves hemodynamic changes, whereas ischemic CSVD is associated with decreased smooth muscle cells in the transition zone. Professor Joutel thus surmised that an increase or decrease in parietal cells is the key to differentiating CSVD phenotypes.
 
<h3>Conclusion</h3>
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Sleep, emotion and cerebrovascular disease are at the very core of human life. When tossing and turning at night, when the mind is in turmoil, when suffering from emotional imbalance, and when cerebrovascular diseases threaten the lives of patients, we feel the invisible constraints and helplessness, and aspire to bring relief to human beings through the power of brain science.
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On the long journey to scientific revelations, brain scientists demonstrated both passion and perseverance in their endeavor to overcome scientific hindrances night and day. The rapid advancement of modern technology has opened up new horizons for brain science research. State-of-the-art brain imaging technology, gene sequencing technology, optogenetics and other tools provide unprecedented opportunities for human beings to explore the mysteries of the brain.
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In this promising era, we firmly believe that brain science research will bring unprecedented benefits to mankind.
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<div id="attachment_1111" style="width: 610px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-1111" class="wp-image-1111" src="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/31-1-300x300.png" alt="" width="600" height="600" srcset="https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/31-1-300x300.png 300w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/31-1-150x150.png 150w, https://admin.next-question.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/31-1.png 400w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" />Scan the QR code to watch the replay</div>
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TCCI-NeuroPSI_How to edit sleep circadian rhythm? Are mitochondria the culprit behind anxiety?

[:en]TCCI-NeuroPSI_How to edit sleep circadian rhythm? Are mitochondria the culprit behind anxiety?[:zh]如何编辑睡眠节律？线粒体是焦虑的元凶？诺奖得主Michael Rosbash会上分享最新研究！[:]

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